The boreal zone, a vast region with abundant natural resources and related industries, has both provisioning and nonprovisioning ecosystem services that draw some people, while warding off others. It is an area that arguably affects many Canadians in different ways and represents a wide range of tangible and intangible values. Changes in demographic patterns over time shed light on the development of the social-ecological landscape of the boreal zone, and elucidate potential changes in the future. Using past and current demographic data, we explore population size, immigration and emigration, and birth and death rates within and outside the boreal zone. We also explore links between demographics, social values, and important factors of change in the boreal zone, and present three contrasting scenarios predicting the state of this zone in 2050. We pay particular attention to the Indigenous population, generational differences, international immigration, and the urban–rural divide. Fertility rates and immigration influence population demographics within and outside the boreal zone, respectively, alluding to potential divergences in social values and between communities located within and outside the boreal zone. The boreal zone is currently comprised of many smaller towns and communities scattered across the landscape, yet it is equally important to consider the influences of larger cities located outside the boreal zone, particularly in terms of governance, population movements, and political power. Considered together, these factors provide insight on social cohesion and connectedness, demand for goods and services, and changes in boreal-centric activities.
Urbanization adversely impacts biodiversity by reducing the quantity and quality of natural habitat areas. Additionally, the quality of natural habitat depends on its bio-physical characteristics (e.g., natural cover, impervious surfaces, urban tree canopy) as well as the functional traits of species inhabiting them (e.g., breeding/foraging habitat requirements). To better plan conservation of regional biodiversity in urbanized landscapes, it is therefore critical to assess the relationship between the landscape and the response of key Functional Trait Groups (FTGs) of species. To identify different FTGs of 116 avian species in the urbanized landscape of the Toronto region (Canada), we conducted a Functional Trait Analysis (FTA) using RLQ-fourth corner analysis. We focused on four species traits (diet, foraging, nesting, and territoriality) to identify the FTGs and their association with natural cover and landscape characteristics (landcover types, patch quality, habitat connectivity). Then, to predict FTG presence in relation to the landscape characteristics, we performed a Habitat Suitability Analysis (HSA). From this analysis, we found 21 avian FTGs with different habitat suitability values that correspond to forested patches and wetlands. The HSA for tree canopy, forest insectivore, and ground-nesting birds (or FTGs) have higher suitability values within forest patches, while aerial insectivores have higher suitability values in older residential neighborhoods indicating the value of the urban tree canopy. This methodological approach shows that by mapping habitat suitability by FTG one can identify strategic conservation areas that target multiple species, shifting efforts from a single species to a community-based functional focus. Our study highlights the conservation value of remnant and/or restored habitat patches in near urban and urban landscapes that help to maximize the persistence of regional avian biodiversity.
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