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The elastometer demonstrated very good repeatability and accuracy in the measurement of force/displacement during in vitro testing. There was a high degree of repeatability and reproducibility in stiffness measurements in a test re-test series. Our results demonstrate the elastometer is accurate and reliable and thereby suitable for larger clinical trials.

The complex mechanical properties of skin have been the subject of much study in recent years. Several experimental methods developed to measure the mechanical properties of skin in vivo, such as suction or torsion, are unable to measure skin's anisotropic characteristics. An experiment characterising the mechanical properties of in vivo human skin using a novel force-sensitive micro-robot is presented. The micro-robot applied in-plane deformations to the anterior forearm and the posterior upper arm. The behaviour of the skin in each area is highly nonlinear, anisotropic, and viscoelastic. The response of the upper arm skin is very dependent on the orientation of the arm. A finite element model consisting of an Ogden strain energy function and quasi-linear viscoelasticity was developed to simulate the experiments. An orthogonal initial stress field, representing the in vivo skin tension, was used as an additional model parameter. The model simulated the experiments accurately with an error-of-fit of 17.5% for the anterior lower forearm area, 6.5% for the anterior upper forearm and 9.3% for the posterior upper arm. The maximum in vivo tension in each area determined by the model was 6.2 Nm(-1) in the anterior lower forearm, 11.4 Nm(-1) in anterior upper forearm and 5.6 Nm(-1) in the posterior upper arm. The results also show that a finite element model with a neo-Hookean strain energy function cannot simulate the experiments with the same accuracy.

Taberner AJ, Han J-C, Loiselle DS, Nielsen PM. An innovative work-loop calorimeter for in vitro measurement of the mechanics and energetics of working cardiac trabeculae. J Appl Physiol 111: 1798 -1803. First published September 8, 2011 doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00752.2011.-We describe a unique work-loop calorimeter with which we can measure, simultaneously, the rate of heat production and force-length work output of isolated cardiac trabeculae. The mechanics of the force-length work-loop contraction mimic those of the pressure-volume work-loops experienced by the heart. Within the measurement chamber of a flowthrough microcalorimeter, a trabecula is electrically stimulated to respond, under software control, in one of three modes: fixed-end, isometric, or isotonic. In each mode, software controls the position of a linear motor, with feedback from muscle force, to adjust muscle length in the desired temporal sequence. In the case of a work-loop contraction, the software achieves seamless transitions between phases of length control (isometric contraction, isometric relaxation, and restoration of resting muscle length) and force control (isotonic shortening). The area enclosed by the resulting force-length loop represents the work done by the trabecula. The change of enthalpy expended by the muscle is given by the sum of the work term and the associated amount of evolved heat. With these simultaneous measurements, we provide the first estimation of suprabasal, net mechanical efficiency (ratio of work to change of enthalpy) of mammalian cardiac trabeculae. The maximum efficiency is at the vicinity of 12%.work; heat; enthalpy; efficiency; microcalorimeter THE ADVANTAGE OF USING ISOLATED tissue preparations for the study of cardiac energetics arises from the ease of administration of ionic or pharmacological interventions. The disadvantage of their use is that it is difficult to achieve realistic approximations of the mechanics of the intact heart. In situ, the heart repetitively undergoes a pressure-volume-time trajectory consisting of sequential periods of isovolumic contraction, emptying, isovolumic relaxation, and passive refilling. Commonly, experiments consist entirely of unloaded, isometric or, more usually, fixed-end contractions. Such artificial mechanical events are rarely, if ever, encountered by the heart. To enhance our understanding of cardiac energetics, it is thus desirable to adopt contraction protocols that more closely resemble the repetitive pressure-volume-time behavior of the heart. Such approximations have been achieved previously using multicellular, isolated, cardiac preparations. Gibbs and colleagues (6, 22) routinely measured the heat and work output of papillary muscles undergoing afterloaded isotonic contractions, thereby generating characteristic enthalpy-load relations and allowing derivation of the load-dependence of mechanical efficiency. Peterson et al. (21) were the first to apply a computer-based "adaptive" approach to the control of muscle segment length to generate isotonic con...

The characterization of skin mechanics has many clinical implications and has been an active area of research for the past few decades. Biomechanical models have evolved from earlier empirical models to state-of-the-art structural models that provide linkage between tissue microstructure and macroscopic stress-strain response. To maximize the accuracy and predictive capabilities of such computational models, there is a need to reliably identify often a large number of unknown model parameters. This is critically dependent on the availability of experimental data that cover an extensive range of different deformation modes, and quantification of internal structural features, such as collagen orientation. To this end, future challenges should include the ongoing development of noninvasive instrumentation and imaging modalities for in vivo skin measurements. We highlight the important concept of tightly integrating computational models, instrumentation, and imaging modalities into a single platform to investigate skin biomechanics.

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Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) greatly increases the afterload on the right ventricle (RV), triggering RV hypertrophy, which progressively leads to RV failure. In contrast, the disease reduces the passive filling pressure of the left ventricle (LV), resulting in LV atrophy. We investigated whether these distinct structural and functional consequences to the ventricles affect their respective energy efficiencies. We studied trabeculae isolated from both ventricles of Wistar rats with monocrotaline-induced PAH and their respective Control groups. Trabeculae were mounted in a calorimeter at 37°C. While contracting at 5 Hz, they were subjected to stress-length work-loops over a wide range of afterloads. They were subsequently required to undergo a series of isometric contractions at various muscle lengths. In both protocols, stress production, length change and suprabasal heat output were simultaneously measured. We found that RV trabeculae from PAH rats generated higher activation heat, but developed normal active stress. Their peak external work output was lower due to reduced extent and velocity of shortening. Despite lower peak work output, suprabasal enthalpy was unaffected, thereby rendering suprabasal efficiency lower. Crossbridge efficiency, however, was unaffected. In contrast, LV trabeculae from PAH rats maintained normal mechano-energetic performance. Pulmonary arterial hypertension reduces the suprabasal energy efficiency of hypertrophied right ventricular tissues as a consequence of the increased energy cost of Ca cycling.

Background: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an important tool for cardiac research, and it is frequently used for resting cardiac assessments. However, research into non-pharmacological stress cardiac evaluation is limited.