Objective -To characterize diagnostic findings, test-retest repeatability, and correlations among lacrimal tests in dogs of diverse cephalic conformations.Animal studied -Fifty healthy dogs (25 brachycephalic, 25 non-brachycephalic).Procedures -A series of diagnostics were performed in each dog, allowing for a 10min-interval between tests and repeating each test 24h later under similar conditions: corneal tactile sensation (CTS), strip meniscometry test (SMT), phenol red thread test (PRTT), endodontic absorbent paper point tear test (EAPPTT), Schirmer tear test-1 without (STT-1) or with nasolacrimal stimulation (NL-STT1), and Schirmer tear test-2 (STT-2).Results -Mean ± SD test values were lower in brachycephalic vs. non-brachycephalic dogs (except for SMT; 7.4±2.0 mm/5s vs. 7.3±2.4 mm/5s), with statistically significant differences noted for CTS (1.8±0.5 cm vs. 3.4±0.8 cm), PRTT (37.2±4.0 mm/15s vs. 41.1±5.5 mm/15s), STT-1 (20.1±3.4 mm/min vs. 23.3 ±5.7 mm/min), STT-2 (13.0 ± 3.4 mm/min vs 16.9 ± 3.9 mm/min), and NL-STT1 (23.2±3.6 mm/min vs. 27.1±5.4 mm/min), and non-significant differences for EAPPTT (16.6±2.7 mm/15s vs. 17.5±2.9 mm/15s).Nasolacrimal stimulation increased STT-1 values by 18% on average. Correlations among tests were generally weak to moderate (r<0.70) except for a strong correlation between STT-1 and NL-STT1 (r=0.83, P<0.001). Tests reliability was good although test-retest repeatability was generally poor to moderate, as depicted by low intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC≤0.75) and wide 95% limits of agreement, except for CTS (ICC=0.91). Conclusions-Corneal sensitivity and aqueous tear secretion are lower in brachycephalic dogs. A comprehensive assessment of the ocular surface requires the combination of several diagnostic tests. The nasolacrimal reflex may provide a useful diagnostic and therapeutic tool in dogs.

Objective To characterize the ocular surface parameters and determine the prevalence of ocular pathology in Shih Tzu dogs. Animal Studied Fifty Shih Tzu dogs (28 male, 22 female). Procedures Each dog underwent a complete ophthalmic examination (recording any pathology) and a series of diagnostics, allowing for a 10 min‐interval between tests: intraocular pressure (IOP), blink rate, palpebral fissure length (PFL), corneal tactile sensation (CTS), Schirmer tear test and nasolacrimal reflex without (STT‐1, NL‐STT1) and with topical anesthesia (STT‐2, NL‐STT2), tear ferning, strip meniscometry test (SMT), tear film breakup time (TFBUT), and punctate fluorescein staining (PFS) of the cornea. Results Mean ± SD test values were as follows: IOP (17.9 ± 3.7 mmHg), blink rate (2.4 ± 1.4 blinks/min), PFL (23.8 ± 1.8 mm), CTS (1.8 ± 0.7 cm), STT‐1 (22.0 ± 5.5 mm/min), NL‐STT1 (24.2 ± 4.7 mm/min), STT‐2 (16.9 ± 6.5 mm/min), NL‐STT2 (18.5 ± 7.5 mm/min), SMT (7.5 ± 3.5 mm/5 s), TFBUT (5.3 ± 2.4 s), tear ferning (1.3 ± 0.7), and PFS (1.6 ± 0.6). PFL was significantly greater in male vs. female Shih Tzus (p< .001). Age was negatively correlated with TFBUT results (r = −0.31, p = .027). Lagophthalmos was observed in 82% eyes. Ocular surface pathology was common, including adnexal abnormalities (100% eyes with caruncular trichiasis and medial lower lid entropion) and corneal opacification (27% pigmentation, 20% fibrosis, 12% neovascularization). Conclusions Qualitative tear film deficiency (low TFBUT), along with several anatomical abnormalities that promote ocular irritation and reduce globe protection, together help explain the concerningly high prevalence of ocular surface disease in the Shih Tzu breed. Prophylactic measures (e.g., medial canthoplasty, topical lubrication) could be considered to improve ocular health in Shih Tzus.

Commercial production of microalgal biomass for food and feed is a recent worldwide trend. Although it is common to publish nutritional data for microalgae grown at the lab-scale, data about industrial strains cultivated in an industrial setting are scarce in the literature. Thus, here we present the nutritional composition and a microbiological and toxicological evaluation of Tetraselmis sp. CTP4 biomass, cultivated in 100-m3 photobioreactors at an industrial production facility (AlgaFarm). This microalga contained high amounts of protein (31.2 g/100 g), dietary fibres (24.6 g/100 g), digestible carbohydrates (18.1 g/100 g) and ashes (15.2 g/100 g), but low lipid content (7.04 g/100 g). The biomass displayed a balanced amount of essential amino acids, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and starch-like polysaccharides. Significant levels of chlorophyll (3.5 g/100 g), carotenoids (0.61 g/100 g), and vitamins (e.g., 79.2 mg ascorbic acid /100 g) were also found in the biomass. Conversely, pathogenic bacteria, heavy metals, cyanotoxins, mycotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and pesticides were absent. The biomass showed moderate antioxidant activity in several in vitro assays. Taken together, as the biomass produced has a balanced biochemical composition of macronutrients and (pro-)vitamins, lacking any toxic contaminants, these results suggest that this strain can be used for nutritional applications.

The results of SMT, osmolarity, TFT, SDS-PAGE, and tear biochemistry may serve as a reference baseline for CM, and the data may serve as a basis for future experimental model evaluations.

The TFT is appropriate for dogs and can be performed using the three suggested sampling methods, with a higher frequency of Type I and Grade 1. Thus, it is possible to use both grading scales in the classification of tear ferning in dogs.