This article investigates the form of European universities to determine the extent to which they resemble the characteristics of complete organizations and whether the forms are associated with modernization policy pressure, national institutional frames and organizational characteristics. An original data set of twenty-six universities from eight countries was used. Specialist universities have a stronger identity, whereas the level of hierarchy and rationality is clearly associated with the intensity of modernization policies. At the same time, evidence suggests limitations for universities to become complete, as mechanisms allowing the development of some dimensions seemingly constrain the capability to develop others.
For several years Portuguese higher education institutions have been waiting for the legislation framework necessary for the implementation of the Bologna process. Such legislation was passed quite recently (2006) and has resulted in an unexpected flood of proposals presented at very short notice by higher education institutions to the Ministry. It is possible that such fast implementation rate corresponds to implementation ''in form'' rather than ''in substance'', thus softening tensions between the European and the national and local levels. This hypothesis will be tested by analysing the outcomes of a survey conducted in all higher education institutions that have presented proposals of Bologna-type degree programmes or adaptations of old degree programmes to the new Bologna-type structure.
This paper addresses the value of the Bologna Process in placing the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) on a solid institutional footing. How far has Bologna contributed to firming up the views academia, management and students have of the EHEA? The article is based on a survey administered across four systems of higher education in 2008. It underlines the importance for those active in shaping policy both at national and at European level to take fully into account the views of the different interests in higher education, difficult and at times non committal though these latter might be.
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