Microorganisms release effector molecules that modulate the host machinery enabling survival, replication, and dissemination of a pathogen. Here we characterized the extracellular proteome of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis at its pathogenic yeast phase. Cell-free culture supernatants from the Pb18 isolate, cultivated in defined medium, were separated into vesicle and vesicle-free fractions, digested with trypsin and analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In vesicle and vesicle-free preparations we identified, respectively, 205 and 260 proteins with two or more peptides, including 120 overlapping identifications. Almost 70% of the sequences were predicted as secretory, mostly using non-conventional secretory pathways, and many have previously been localized to fungal cell walls. A total of 72 proteins were considered as commonly transported by extracellular vesicles, considering that orthologues have been reported in at least two other fungal species. These sequences were mostly related to translation, carbohydrate and protein metabolism, oxidation/reduction, transport, response to stress, and signaling. This unique proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles and vesicle-free released proteins in a pathogenic fungus provides full comparison with other fungal extracellular vesicle proteomes and broadens the current view on fungal secretomes.

Paracoccidioides is a fungal pathogen and the cause of paracoccidioidomycosis, a health-threatening human systemic mycosis endemic to Latin America. Infection by Paracoccidioides, a dimorphic fungus in the order Onygenales, is coupled with a thermally regulated transition from a soil-dwelling filamentous form to a yeast-like pathogenic form. To better understand the genetic basis of growth and pathogenicity in Paracoccidioides, we sequenced the genomes of two strains of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Pb03 and Pb18) and one strain of Paracoccidioides lutzii (Pb01). These genomes range in size from 29.1 Mb to 32.9 Mb and encode 7,610 to 8,130 genes. To enable genetic studies, we mapped 94% of the P. brasiliensis Pb18 assembly onto five chromosomes. We characterized gene family content across Onygenales and related fungi, and within Paracoccidioides we found expansions of the fungal-specific kinase family FunK1. Additionally, the Onygenales have lost many genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism and fewer genes involved in protein metabolism, resulting in a higher ratio of proteases to carbohydrate active enzymes in the Onygenales than their relatives. To determine if gene content correlated with growth on different substrates, we screened the non-pathogenic onygenale Uncinocarpus reesii, which has orthologs for 91% of Paracoccidioides metabolic genes, for growth on 190 carbon sources. U. reesii showed growth on a limited range of carbohydrates, primarily basic plant sugars and cell wall components; this suggests that Onygenales, including dimorphic fungi, can degrade cellulosic plant material in the soil. In addition, U. reesii grew on gelatin and a wide range of dipeptides and amino acids, indicating a preference for proteinaceous growth substrates over carbohydrates, which may enable these fungi to also degrade animal biomass. These capabilities for degrading plant and animal substrates suggest a duality in lifestyle that could enable pathogenic species of Onygenales to transfer from soil to animal hosts.

Exosome-like vesicles containing virulence factors, enzymes, and antigens have recently been characterized in fungal pathogens, such as Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum. Here, we describe extracellular vesicles carrying highly immunogenic ␣-linked galactopyranosyl (␣-Gal) epitopes in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. P. brasiliensis is a dimorphic fungus that causes human paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM). For vesicle preparations, cell-free supernatant fluids from yeast cells cultivated in Ham's defined medium-glucose were concentrated in an Amicon ultrafiltration system and ultracentrifuged at 100,000 ؋ g. P. brasiliensis antigens were present in preparations from phylogenetically distinct isolates Pb18 and Pb3, as observed in immunoblots revealed with sera from PCM patients. In an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), vesicle components containing ␣-Gal epitopes reacted strongly with anti-␣-Gal antibodies isolated from both Chagas' disease and PCM patients, with Marasmius oreades agglutinin (MOA) (a lectin that recognizes terminal ␣-Gal), but only faintly with natural anti-␣-Gal. Reactivity was inhibited after treatment with ␣-galactosidase. Vesicle preparations analyzed by electron microscopy showed vesicular structures of 20 to 200 nm that were labeled both on the surface and in the lumen with MOA. In P. brasiliensis cells, components carrying ␣-Gal epitopes were found distributed on the cell wall, following a punctuated confocal pattern, and inside large intracellular vacuoles. Lipid-free vesicle fractions reacted with anti-␣-Gal in ELISA only when not digested with ␣-galactosidase, while reactivity with glycoproteins was reduced after ␤-elimination, which is indicative of partial O-linked chain localization. Our findings open new areas to explore in terms of host-parasite relationships in PCM and the role played in vivo by vesicle components and ␣-galactosyl epitopes.

Malignant melanoma is one the most aggressive types of cancer and its incidence has gradually increased in the last years, accounting for about 75% of skin cancer deaths. This poor prognosis results from the tumor resistance to conventional drugs mainly by deregulation of apoptotic pathways. The aim of this work was to investigate the cell death mechanism induced by α-pinene and its therapeutic application. Our results demonstrated that α-pinene was able to induce apoptosis evidenced by early disruption of the mitochondrial potential, production of reactive oxygen species, increase in caspase-3 activity, heterochromatin aggregation, DNA fragmentation and exposure of phosphatidyl serine on the cell surface. Most importantly, this molecule was very effective in the treatment of experimental metastatic melanoma reducing the number of lung tumor nodules. This is the first report on the apoptotic and antimetastatic activity of isolated α-pinene.

Background Fungal extracellular vesicles are able to cross the cell wall and transport molecules that help in nutrient acquisition, cell defense, and modulation of the host defense machinery. Methodology/Principal Findings Here we present a detailed lipidomic analysis of extracellular vesicles released by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis at the yeast pathogenic phase. We compared data of two representative isolates, Pb3 and Pb18, which have distinct virulence profiles and phylogenetic background. Vesicle lipids were fractionated into different classes and analyzed by either electrospray ionization- or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. We found two species of monohexosylceramide and 33 phospholipid species, including phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, and phosphatidylglycerol. Among the phospholipid-bound fatty acids in extracellular vesicles, C18 1 predominated in Pb3, whereas C18:2 prevailed in Pb18. The prevalent sterol in Pb3 and Pb18 vesicles was brassicasterol, followed by ergosterol and lanosterol. Inter-isolate differences in sterol composition were observed, and also between extracellular vesicles and whole cells. Conclusions/Significance The extensive lipidomic analysis of extracellular vesicles from two P. brasiliensis isolates will help to understand the composition of these fungal components/organelles and will hopefully be useful to study their biogenesis and role in host-pathogen interactions.

The cell wall of pathogenic fungi plays import roles in the interaction with the host, so that its composition and structure may determine the course of infection. Here we present an overview of the current and past knowledge on the cell wall constituents of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and P. lutzii. These are temperature-dependent dimorphic fungi that cause paracoccidioidomycosis, a systemic granulomatous, and debilitating disease. Focus is given on cell wall carbohydrate and protein contents, their immune-stimulatory features, adhesion properties, drug target characteristics, and morphological phase specificity. We offer a journey toward the future understanding of the dynamic nature of the cell wall and of the changes that may occur when the fungus infects the human host.

No abstract

BackgroundMalignant melanoma is a deadly type of metastatic skin cancer with increased incidence over the past 30 years. Despite the advanced knowledge on the biology, immunobiology and molecular genetics of melanoma, the alternatives of treatment are limited with poor prognosis. On clinical trials, natural products and among them redox-active quinones have been tested in the attempt to control the growth of cancer cells. Recently, we isolated jacaranone from Pentacalia desiderabilis, a benzoquinone derivative that showed a broad antitumor activity and protective anti-melanoma effect in a syngeneic model. The purified substance is active at micromolar concentrations, is not hemolytic, and is not toxic in naïve mice.Methodology/Principal FindingsThe jacaranone antitumor activity was shown against several human cancer cell lines in vitro. Moreover, the induction of apoptosis in murine melanoma cells and jacaranone antitumor activity in vivo, in a melanoma experimental model, were also shown. Jacaranone renders antiproliferative and proapoptotic responses in tumor cells, by acting on Akt and p38 MAPK signaling pathways through generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The free radical scavenger N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) was able to completely suppress cell death induced by jacaranone as it blocked Akt downregulation, p38 MAPK activation as well as upregulation of proapoptotic Bax. Notably, treatment of melanoma growing subcutaneously in mice with jacaranone significantly extended the mean survival times in a dose-dependent manner.Conclusions/SignificanceThe results provide evidence for the mechanisms of action of jacaranone and emphasize the potential use of this quinone for the treatment of melanoma.