Individuals indirectly exposed to terrorism may develop long-lasting posttraumatic stress reactions fulfilling PTSD symptom criteria. Due to the large number of individuals that may be indirectly exposed to terrorism, even a low risk of PTSD may result in high numbers of individuals with substantial posttraumatic stress. Our findings have implications for the planning and implementation of health care services beyond those directly exposed after large-scale terror events.

ObjectiveTo assess the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms among governmental employees after the 2011 Oslo bombing attack targeted towards the Norwegian Ministries, and to explore the importance of proximity to the bomb explosion as a predictor of PTSD.DesignA cross-sectional study.SettingData were collected from a survey 10 months after the Oslo bombing on 22 July 2011.ParticipantsA total of 3520 employees were invited to the study. Net samples comprised 1927 employees in 14 of the 17 Norwegian Ministries.Outcome measuresThe employees reported where they were at the time of the explosion. PTSD was assessed with the Norwegian version of the PTSD checklist (PCL).ResultsA total of 207 of the 1881 (11%) ministerial employees who completed the survey were present at work when the bomb exploded. Of these, a quarter (24%, 95% CI 18.4 to 30.0) had symptom levels equivalent to PTSD, while the prevalence was approximately 4% among those not present at work. In the latter group the prevalence was similar irrespective of whether their location was in Oslo, other places in Norway or abroad. Leadership responsibility was associated with lower risk for PTSD.ConclusionsThe risk of PTSD is mainly associated with being present at work at the time of a terror attack. For those not present at work, the risk of PTSD is low and independent of proximity to the terror scene. The findings may have implications for planning and priority of healthcare services after a work place terror attack.

Counterfactual thinking (CFT), that is thinking about what might have happened, is linked to post-traumatic stress. We studied the relationship between type and frequency of CFT and post-traumatic stress in a sample of directly (n=50) and indirectly exposed (n=50) ministerial employees 4years after the 2011 Oslo bombing. The results showed that frequency of CFT was associated with levels of post-traumatic stress, among both directly and indirectly exposed participants. In the directly exposed group, self-reported frequencies of downward counterfactuals were associated with post-traumatic stress. A similar trend was found for upward counterfactuals. In the indirectly exposed group, self-reported frequencies of both upward and downward counterfactuals were associated with higher levels of post-traumatic stress. These results point to the intriguing possibility that people may not only develop post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of actual experiences, but also via mental simulations of traumatic events that could have happened.

BackgroundExperiencing potentially traumatic events is associated with psychological distress. However, some survivors also experience positive personal and psychological changes in the aftermath of trauma.MethodsThe present study investigated perceived posttraumatic growth in 197 ministerial employees who were present at work during the 2011 Oslo bombing attack. The relationships between trauma-exposure, peritraumatic reactions and posttraumatic growth were studied. Moreover, the adaptive significance of posttraumatic growth was addressed.ResultsThe results showed that higher levels of trauma-exposure and immediate reactions were significantly related to perceived posttraumatic growth. No support for an adaptive significance of posttraumatic growth was found. On the contrary, posttraumatic growth was associated with higher symptom levels of posttraumatic stress. After adjusting for posttraumatic stress symptoms no association was found between perceived growth and work and social adjustment. However, perceived growth was associated with higher levels of life satisfaction.ConclusionThe present results are in line with previous findings indicating that perceived growth may be unrelated to psychological adjustment, and suggest that the concept and significance of posttraumatic growth should be interpreted with caution.

ObjectivesTo estimate the rate of sick leave and sick leave diagnosis among employees before and after a work-place targeted terror attack, and to compare sick leave in subgroups of employees based on gender and trauma exposure.MethodsData on sick leave and diagnosis in ministerial employees from the period 3 years before to 3 years after the 2011 bombing in the governmental district of Oslo was retrieved from the Norwegian Social Insurance Administration Registries.ResultsPrior to the attack, sick leave was twice as high in women as in men. Compared to the period prior to the attack, sick leave increased the first year after the attack, for both women and men that were directly exposed to the event. Sick leave stabilized to the initial level 3 years after the incident. For indirectly exposed employees, i.e., those who were not present at the site of the attack, there was no significant increase in sick leave from before to after the attack. There were no statistical significant changes in diagnoses applied before and after the terrorist attack. However, there was a tendency towards an increase in sick leave due to psychological diagnoses among the directly exposed women.ConclusionsAfter a work-place terrorist attack a transient increase in sick leave may occur among employees who were present at the site of the attack. The increase may seem relatively modest and last for 1–3 years.

Terror-exposed employees feel more threatened and less safe after a workplace terrorist attack, and this is closely linked to elevated levels of posttraumatic stress reactions.

Asylum seekers are faced with high levels of post-migratory stress due to uncertainty and uncontrollability of the application process, resulting in higher levels of mental health problems. Little is known about the coping strategies utilized by asylum seekers in this context. Structural equation modeling and the stepwise modeling approach were utilized on cross-sectional data from a cohort of asylum seekers in Sweden (N = 455) to examine whether adaptive coping in the form of problem-focused and cognitive-based coping would buffer the impact of post-migratory stressors by moderating the relationship between the stressors and well-being. Fit indices showed good to excellent fit of the final model that regressed well-being on selected post-migratory stressors and coping (CFI = 0.964, RMSEA = 0.043 (90% CI = 0.035–0.051), SRMR = 0.044). Well-being was negatively and significantly regressed on both perceived discrimination (B = −0.42, SE = 0.11, p < 0.001) and distressing family conflicts (B = −0.16, SE = 0.07, p = 0.037), and positively and significantly regressed on cognitive restructuring (B = 0.71, SE = 0.33, p = 0.030). There was, however, no evidence that coping strategies modified the adverse associations between the two post-migratory stressors and well-being. Interventions and policies should prioritize improving contextual factors inherent in the asylum-seeking process in order to reduce stress and enable coping.

Background The objective of the present study was to assess nation-wide, representative prevalence estimates for symptom-defined posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) within populations of refugee minors from Afghanistan, Syria and Iraq resettled in Sweden. Methods A nation-wide, cross-sectional, questionnaire study with a stratified sample of refugee minors, aged 16–18 years, from Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria, resettled in Sweden between 2014 and 2018 (N = 5071) was conducted. The response rate was 22.3%, leaving n = 1129 refugee minors (boys 53.1% / girls 46.9%) in the final sample. Symptom-defined prevalences of PTSD were measured using CRIES-8 with ≥17 as cut-off. Data were analyzed using frequency distributions, and strata-specific PTSD prevalences with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), were estimated. The association between migratory status on arrival (unaccompanied vs. accompanied) and PTSD was estimated using crude and adjusted odds ratios (OR) utilizing logistic regression analyses with 95% CIs. Results Overall, the weighted PTSD prevalence was 42% (95% CI 38.9–45.1), with minors from Afghanistan presenting the highest prevalence (56.9, 95% CI 51.5–62.2), compared to minors from Iraq (36.8, 95% CI 28.9–45.4) and Syria (33.4, 95% CI 29.4–37.6). Unaccompanied minors from Afghanistan had higher odds of PTSD compared to accompanied minors from Afghanistan (OR = 1.92, 95% CI 1.08–3.40). Gender differences were non-significant. Conclusions High prevalences of symptom-defined PTSD among refugee minors in general and in unaccompanied minors from Afghanistan in particular, were revealed. Findings calls for continued efforts to support this especially vulnerable group.