Proximity to terror and post-traumatic stress: a follow-up survey of governmental employees after the 2011 Oslo bombing attack

Abstract

ObjectiveTo assess the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms among governmental employees after the 2011 Oslo bombing attack targeted towards the Norwegian Ministries, and to explore the importance of proximity to the bomb explosion as a predictor of PTSD.DesignA cross-sectional study.SettingData were collected from a survey 10 months after the Oslo bombing on 22 July 2011.ParticipantsA total of 3520 employees were invited to the study. Net samples comprised 1927 employees in 14 of the 17 Norwegian Ministries.Outcome measuresThe employees reported where they were at the time of the explosion. PTSD was assessed with the Norwegian version of the PTSD checklist (PCL).ResultsA total of 207 of the 1881 (11%) ministerial employees who completed the survey were present at work when the bomb exploded. Of these, a quarter (24%, 95% CI 18.4 to 30.0) had symptom levels equivalent to PTSD, while the prevalence was approximately 4% among those not present at work. In the latter group the prevalence was similar irrespective of whether their location was in Oslo, other places in Norway or abroad. Leadership responsibility was associated with lower risk for PTSD.ConclusionsThe risk of PTSD is mainly associated with being present at work at the time of a terror attack. For those not present at work, the risk of PTSD is low and independent of proximity to the terror scene. The findings may have implications for planning and priority of healthcare services after a work place terror attack.

Association between feeling threatened by a terrorist attack and subjective health: a web survey a week after the attacks of 22 March 2016 in Belgium

“…People working or living in the region of the attacks felt more threatened, which is in line with most other studies (Hansen et al, 2013). However, some studies only found a weak association between perceived threat and level of exposure (Bleich et al, 2003; Cohen et al, 2006).…”

“…Although the risk of being directly hit by such attacks is quite limited, the perception that anyone can be hit at any moment may engender feelings of threat. Rather than objective factors, such as proximity to the terrorist attack, the perception of threat has a psychological effect (Ford et al, 2007; Hansen, Nissen, & Heir, 2013; Nissen, Birkeland Nielsen, Solberg, Bang Hansen, & Heir, 2015). Although several studies have found an association between exposure and post-traumatic symptoms (Hansen et al, 2013; Heir, Blix, & Knatten, 2016), other studies did not find such association (Bleich et al, 2003; Ford et al, 2007).…”

“…Notwithstanding the evidence of the impact of terroristic attacks, most studies are conducted in the US and only a small number of European studies deal with the more recent wave of terrorist attacks (Goodwin, Kaniasty, Sun, & Ben-Ezra, 2017; Hansen et al, 2017, 2013; Heir et al, 2016). As this particular wave of terrorism in Europe is rather recent, the evidence of the impact of terrorism on the population is not so well documented.…”

Making connections: exploring the centrality of posttraumatic stress symptoms and covariates after a terrorist attack

“…Twenty-four percent of the sample reported PTSD symptoms that meet the criteria for probable PTSD according to the flowchart method (Hansen, Nissen, & Heir, 2013). In line with the specifications of DSM-IV, this procedure requires one positive score in cluster B, three in cluster C, and two in cluster D (Hem et al, 2012).…”

Social and occupational factors associated with psychological wellbeing among occupational groups affected by disaster: a systematic review

“…Closer proximity to the disaster was associated with increased symptoms of PTSD and depression in Pentagon staff following September 11 th (Grieger et al, 2004); PTSD symptoms in governmental employees following a bombing (Hansen et al, 2013); alcohol abuse, PTSD symptoms, panic attacks and anxiety in Pentagon staff following September 11 th (Jordan et al, 2004); and depression and PTSD symptoms in transit employees following September 11 th (Tapp et al, 2005).…”