ABCTRACT The first genuine psychobiography, Sigmund Freud's Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory c^His Childhood (1910Childhood ( /1957b, presented several important guidelines for psychobiographical research Among them were the rejection both of pathography and of idealization, and the avoidance both of arguments built upon a single clue and of strong conclusions based upon inadequate data Though the guidelines are sound, Freud violated those guidelines in the very work where they first appeared Freud's methodological errors and his "obsession" with the Leonardo book are traced in part to his projective identification with Leonardo, incorporating aspects of his own sexual history and his anxieties about the future of the psychoanalytic movement Sigmund Freud's book on Leonardo (1910Leonardo ( /1957b) is widely regarded as the first genuine psychobiography Other researchers, including Mobius and Sadger, had previously concemed themselves with the psychology of "great men," but their main goal was to amve at a specific diagnosis of psychopathology In Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood, Freud went much farther He applied a systematic theory of personality to the entire span of a creative individual's life, and he provided psychological explanations for certain of Leonardo's achievements as well as his failuresMore than 75 years later, Freud's book remains m several regards a model psychobiography He chose one of the most important and chal-
Incentive theory is advanced as more satisfactory than dissonance theory in dealing with attitude change induced through role playing. Incentive theory and dissonance theory yield opposite predictions about attitudinal results of role playing which involves different incentive levels. Experimental studies in this area are reviewed, and alternative explanations are discussed. Results which appear to support dissonance theory can generally be attributed to the arousal of interfering negative affect by increasing reward levels. When opportunity for instigation of such interfering reactions is low, increased reward may lead to more effective biased scanning and thus to more attitude change. Complicating factors are noted,
Jerry M. Burger's partial replication of Stanley Milgram's (1963, 1965, 1974) classic experiments on obedience to authority is considered from the viewpoint of a contributor and witness to the original obedience experiments. Although Burger's replication succeeded in terms of gaining the approval of his local institutional review board, it did so by removing a large portion of the stressful circumstances that made Milgram's findings so psychologically interesting and so broadly applicable to instances of real-world destructive obedience. However, Burger has provided an initial demonstration that his "obedience lite" procedures can be used to extend the study of certain situational and personality variables beyond those examined by Milgram.
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