Flooding is common in lowlands and areas with high rainfall or excessive irrigation. A major effect of flooding is the deprivation of O 2 in the root zone, which affects several biochemical and morphophysiological plant processes. The objective of this study was to elucidate biochemical and physiological characteristics associated with tolerance to O 2 deficiency in two clonal cacao genotypes. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse with two contrasting clones differing in flood tolerance: TSA-792 (tolerant) and TSH-774 (susceptible). Leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence, chemical composition and oxidative stress were assessed during 40 d for control and flooded plants. Flooding induced a decrease in net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration of both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone showed changes in chlorophyll fluorescence, reductions in chlorophyll content and increased activity of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase. Flooding also caused changes in macro-and micronutrients, total soluble sugars and starch concentrations in different plant organs of both genotypes. Response curves for the relationship between photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and net photosynthetic rate (P N ) for flooded plants were similar for both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone exhibited (1) nonstomatal limitations to photosynthesis since decreased in maximum potential quantum yield of PSII (F v /F m ) values indicated possible damage to the PSII light-harvesting complex; (2) oxidative stress; (3) increased leaf chlorosis; and (4) a reduction in root carbohydrate levels. These stresses resulted in death of several plants after 30 d of flooding.

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Groups of 14-year-old cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) trees were hand pollinated, pollinated naturally or had their fruits continuously removed. Wilted and non-wilted cherelles (small fruits) were counted every 2 weeks, fallen flowers were counted weekly and mature pods were harvested monthly from 1983 through 1986. Carbohydrate, lipid and protein contents of wilted cherelles, mature pods and flowers were determined. Continuous removal of fruits caused a constant initiation of flowers and a significant increase in flowering intensity compared with the other treatments. The quantity of cherelles in the hand-pollinated trees was significantly greater than in the naturally pollinated trees. However, the number of mature fruits in both treatments was not statistically different because of increased cherelle wilting in the hand-pollinated trees. The continuously depodded trees allocated approximately 8 and 5 times more assimilate to flower production than the hand- and naturally pollinated trees, respectively. The naturally pollinated trees used only about one third as much energy for the production of flowers and wilted cherelles as the hand-pollinated trees, but about 1.4 times more energy than the depodded trees. It is concluded that fruit set in cacao is regulated by assimilate production and that cherelle wilting is the mechanism whereby the tree adjusts production.

ABSTRACT. We estimated genetic parameters through multivariate analysis of two species of Passiflora and their hybrids, considered of ornamental potential, based on the morphological characteristics: flower diameter, corona diameter, corona filament size, flower peduncle length, petal length and width, sepal length and width, internode length, stem diameter, leaf length, leaf width (mm), and leaf area (cm 2 ). Five specimens of Passiflora sublanceolata [ex P. palmeri var. sublanceolata], five of P. foetida var. foetida and 20 F 1 hybrids between the two were evaluated. A randomized block design with four replications was used. The data were submitted to variance analysis and multivariate procedures, principal components analysis and unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean grouping. We found significant differences between genotypes for all these morphological parameters. The hybrid plants had the highest variability, making them the most indicated for future improvement programs. The various multivariate techniques gave similar results, allowing separation of the plants into three distinct groups, these being the two paternal species and the hybrids. The hybrids were closer to the male genitors, revealing a paternal effect on the inheritance of vegetative and floral characters. Based on estimates of genetic parameters, the floral characteristics are the most indicated for the selection of plants for ornamental purposes, since these characteristics displayed greatest variability, a variation index of more than one, and high genotypic determination coefficients.

Responses of leaf gas exchange, fluorescence emission, chlorophyll concentration, and morpho-anatomical features to changes in photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) were studied in three wild ornamental species of Passiflora L. to select sun and shade species for landscaping projects. Artificial shade was obtained with different shading nylon nets, under field conditions, which allowed the reduction of 25, 50, and 75% of global radiation, along with a control treatment under full sunlight. For Passiflora morifolia the highest mean values of light-saturated net photosynthetic rate (P Nmax ) and light compensation point (LCP) were observed at 50 and 25% shade, respectively, while the highest values of dark respiration rate (R D ) and apparent quantum yield (α) were observed at 75% shade. For Passiflora suberosa litoralis the highest value of P max was observed at full sunlight. The highest mean values for P max , R D , and LCP for Passiflora palmeri var. sublanceolata were obtained at 25% shade. The highest values of net photosynthetic rate (P N ) for P. morifolia, P. palmeri var. sublanceolata, and P. suberosa litoralis were 21.09, 16.15, and 12.36 μmol(CO 2 ) m -2 s -1 , observed at 50 and 75% shade and full sunlight, respectively. The values of the minimal chlorophyll fluorescence (F 0 ) were significantly different in P. suberosa litoralis and P. palmeri var. sublanceolata, increasing with the increase of the irradiance. In contrast, the values of maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (F v /F m ) were significantly different only in P. suberosa litoralis, being higher at 75%, progressively reducing with the increase of PPFD levels. The total concentration of chlorophyll (Chl) was higher in shaded plants than in the ones cultivated in full sunlight. On the other hand, the values of Chl a/b ratio were reduced in shaded plants. A significant effect of shade levels on leaf area (LA) and specific leaf area (SLA) was found for the three species, whose highest mean values were observed at 75% shade. The thickness of foliar tissues was significantly higher for the three species at full sunlight and 25% shade. These results suggested that P. morifolia and P. palmeri var. sublanceolata appeared to be adapted to moderate shade conditions. P. suberosa litoralis presented higher plasticity to greater variation of the irradiance levels, while the photoinhibition was one of the limiting factors for this species at full sunlight.

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) was grown as an understory tree in agroforestry systems where it received inadequate to adequate levels of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). As atmospheric carbon dioxide steadily increased, it was unclear what impact this would have on cacao growth and development at low PPFD. This research evaluated the effects of ambient and elevated levels carbon dioxide under inadequate to adequate levels of PPFD on growth, physiological and nutrient use efficiency traits of seven genetically contrasting juvenile cacao genotypes. Growth parameters (total and root dry weight, root length, stem height, leaf area, relative growth rate and net assimilation rates increased, and specific leaf area decreased significantly in response to increasing carbon dioxide and PPFD. Increasing carbon dioxide and PPFD levels significantly increased net photosynthesis and water-use efficiency traits but significantly reduced stomatal conductance and transpiration. With few exceptions, increasing carbon dioxide and PPFD reduced macro–micro nutrient concentrations but increased uptake, influx, transport and nutrient use efficiency in all cacao genotypes. Irrespective of levels of carbon dioxide and PPFD, intraspecific differences were observed for growth, physiology and nutrient use efficiency of cacao genotypes.

Crotalarias are tropical legumes grown as cover crops or green manure crops to improve soil fertility and reduce soil degradation. As understory plants in plantation crop systems, these cover crops receive elevated levels of [CO 2 ] and low irradiance. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of ambient (400 μmol mol -1 ) and elevated (700 μmol mol -1

The Theobroma lethal character Luteus-Pa segregates in a 3:1 ratio, expresses in recessive homozygosis, initially inducing leaf chlorosis and finally provoking seedlings death. The objective of this work was to evaluate gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence emission, chemical composition and oxidative stress of wild and mutant seedlings resulting from the crosses Pa 30 × Pa 169 and its reciprocal, aiming to elucidate the seedlings death induced by Luteus-Pa. At 15 day after emergence (DAE) differences began to appear between the wild type and mutant. Mutant seedlings showed: (1) lack of photosynthesis and alterations in chloroplast morphology; (2) lower level of three abundant groups of proteins in leaves; (3) decrease in the content of chloroplastidic pigments (4) decrease in peroxidases activities and increase in leaf polyphenol oxidase activity; (5) decrease in carbohydrate and concentration of some nutrients and low dry mass in all plant parts. In leaves of mutant seedlings of both crosses damages occurred in the system responsible for the photochemical phase of photosynthesis. Variations in growth parameters and subsequent seedling death up to 60 DAE were related to exhaustion of cotyledonary reserves, inactive photosynthetic apparatus and oxidative stress.