Cacao, one of the world's most important perennial crops, is almost exclusively explored for chocolate manufacturing. Most cacao varieties belong to three groups: Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario that vary according to morphology, genetic and geographical origins. It is cropped under the shade of forest trees or as a monocrop without shade. Seedlings initially show an orthotropic growth with leaf emission relatively independent of climate. The maturity phase begins with the emission of plagiotropic branches that form the tree crown. At this stage environmental factors exert a large influence on plant development. Growth and development of cacao are highly dependent on temperature, which mainly affects vegetative growth, flowering and fruit development. Soil flooding decreases leaf area, stomatal conductance and photosynthetic rates in addition to inducing formation of lenticels and adventitious roots. For most genotypes drought resistance is associated with osmotic adjustment. Cacao produces caulescent flowers, which begin dehiscing in late afternoon and are completely open at the beginning of the following morning releasing pollen to a receptive stigma. Non pollinated flowers abscise 24-36 h after anthesis. The percentage of flowers setting pods is in the range 0.5 -5%. The most important parameters determinants of yield are related to: (i) light interception, photosynthesis and capacity of photoassimilate distribution, (ii) maintenance respiration and (iii) pod morphology and seed fermentation, events that can be modified by abiotic factors. Cacao is a shade tolerant species, in which appropriate shading leads to relatively high photosynthetic rates, growth and seed yield. However, heavy shade reduces seed yield and increases incidence of diseases; in fact, cacao yields and light interception are tightly related when nutrient availability is not limiting. High production of non-shaded cacao requires high inputs in protection and nutrition of the crop. Annual radiation and rainfall during the dry season explains 70% of the variations in annual seed yields. Key words: root growth, flowering, pod set, flushing, mineral nutrition Ecofisiologia do cacaueiro: O cacau, um dos mais importantes cultivos perenes no mundo, é quase exclusivamente explorado para a fabricação de chocolate. A maioria das variedades de cacau pertence a três grupos: Criollo, Forasteiro e Trinitário, que variam de acordo com a morfologia, genética e origem geográfica. É cultivado sob sombra de árvores de floresta ou como monocultivo sem sombra. As plântulas inicialmente mostram um crescimento ortotrópico com emissão de folhas relativamente independente do clima. A fase de maturidade inicia-se com a emissão de ramos plagiotrópicos que formam a copa. Nesse estádio, fatores ambientes exercem grande influência no desenvolvimento da planta. O crescimento e o desenvolvimento do cacaueiro são dependentes da temperatura, que afeta principalmente o crescimento vegetativo, florescimento e desenvolvimento do fruto. O alagamento do solo diminui a área fol...

Elevated carbon dioxide throughout the lifespan of soybean causes an increase in photosynthesis, biomass, and seed yield. A rectangular hyperbola model predicts a 32% increase in soybean seed yield with a doubling of carbon dioxide from 315 to 630 ppm and shows that yields may have increased by 13% from about 1800 A.D. to the present due to global carbon dioxide increases. Several other sets of data indicate that photosynthetic and growth response to rising carbon dioxide of many species, including woody plants, is similar to that of soybean. Calculations suggest that enough carbon could be sequestered annually from increased photosynthesis and biomass production due to the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide from 315 ppm in 1958 to about 345 ppm in 1986 to reduce the impact of deforestation in the tropics on the putative current flux of carbon from the biosphere to the atmosphere.

Flooding is common in lowlands and areas with high rainfall or excessive irrigation. A major effect of flooding is the deprivation of O 2 in the root zone, which affects several biochemical and morphophysiological plant processes. The objective of this study was to elucidate biochemical and physiological characteristics associated with tolerance to O 2 deficiency in two clonal cacao genotypes. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse with two contrasting clones differing in flood tolerance: TSA-792 (tolerant) and TSH-774 (susceptible). Leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence, chemical composition and oxidative stress were assessed during 40 d for control and flooded plants. Flooding induced a decrease in net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration of both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone showed changes in chlorophyll fluorescence, reductions in chlorophyll content and increased activity of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase. Flooding also caused changes in macro-and micronutrients, total soluble sugars and starch concentrations in different plant organs of both genotypes. Response curves for the relationship between photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and net photosynthetic rate (P N ) for flooded plants were similar for both genotypes. In flood conditions, the flood-susceptible clone exhibited (1) nonstomatal limitations to photosynthesis since decreased in maximum potential quantum yield of PSII (F v /F m ) values indicated possible damage to the PSII light-harvesting complex; (2) oxidative stress; (3) increased leaf chlorosis; and (4) a reduction in root carbohydrate levels. These stresses resulted in death of several plants after 30 d of flooding.

Six months-old seminal plants of 36 cacao genotypes grown under greenhouse conditions were subjected to two soil water regimes (control and drought) to assess, the effects of water deficit on growth, chemical composition and oxidative stress. In the control, soil moisture was maintained near field capacity with leaf water potentials (ΨWL) ranging from −0.1 to −0.5 MPa. In the drought treatment, the soil moisture was reduced gradually by withholding additional water until ΨWL reached values of between −2.0 to −2.5 MPa. The tolerant genotypes PS-1319, MO-20 and MA-15 recorded significant increases in guaiacol peroxidase activity reflecting a more efficient antioxidant metabolism. In relation to drought tolerance, the most important variables in the distinguishing contrasting groups were: total leaf area per plant; leaf, stem and total dry biomass; relative growth rate; plant shoot biomass and leaf content of N, Ca, and Mg. From the results of these analyses, six genotypes were selected with contrasting characteristics for tolerance to soil water deficit [CC-40, C. SUL-4 and SIC-2 (non-tolerant) and MA-15, MO-20, and PA-13 (tolerant)] for further assessment of the expression of genes NCED5, PP2C, psbA and psbO to water deficit. Increased expression of NCED5, PP2C, psbA and psbO genes were found for non-tolerant genotypes, while in the majority of tolerant genotypes there was repression of these genes, with the exception of PA-13 that showed an increased expression of psbA. Mutivariate analysis showed that growth variables, leaf and total dry biomass, relative growth rate as well as Mg content of the leaves were the most important factor in the classification of the genotypes as tolerant, moderately tolerant and sensitive to water deficit. Therefore these variables are reliable plant traits in the selection of plants tolerant to drought.

Somatic embryogenesis is a morphogenetic event where somatic cells have the ability to produce embryos without gamete fusion. It is used as a technique for plant mass propagation. It is a process that has six well defined steps such as induction, expression, development, maturation, germination and plant conversion. These steps are characterized by distinct physiological, morphological and molecular events. Although somatic embryogenesis has been established in several plant species, there remains many problems to be solved. The main problem in somatic embryogenesis is the large number of abnormal embryos produced which cannot germinate nor convert into normal plants. Abnormalities in somatic embryos (SE) can be generated by genetic or epigenetic changes in the DNA. These changes in the DNA can be influenced by external factors such as the use of plant growth regulators and mutagenic substances or stress factors applied to the plant tissue such as high and low temperatures, drought, salinity, and heavy metals. Abnormalities generated by genetic changes in the DNA are hardly reversible; however, abnormalities generated by epigenetic changes may be reversible and the abnormal embryos are able to produce normal plants in most cases. This review focuses on the identification of the main factors that can cause abnormal SE development in different plant species, suggest how SE abnormalities are related to somaclonal variations and identify which genes may be involved with embryo abnormalities. Zygotic embryo abnormalities in Arabidopsis thaliana mutants are listed with the aim to understand the main genetic mechanisms involved in embryo aberrations. Key messageThe abnormalities in somatic embryos are related to the use of 2,4-D in most of the published protocols, this sintetic auxin disrupts the endogenous auxin balance and the auxin polar transportation interfering with the embryo apical-basal polarity.

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Carbon dioxide exchange rates (CER) were measured during seed fill on leaflets of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr. ‘Bragg’] plants grown at 330 and 660 μmol mol−1 CO2 environments in outdoor growth chambers to investigate their photosynthetic response to light. During midday periods at the R5 growth stage, the plants were submitted to short‐term CO2 levels ranging from 90 to 990 μmol mo1−1 to determine differences in leaf photosynthetic response caused by CO2 acclimation. The data were fitted to a rectangular hyperbola of the Michaelis‐Menten form in which the independent variable was radiation or CO2. Light and CO2 compensation points were calculated from the parameters of the model. Light response curves showed that leaflets grown and measured at 660 μmol mol−1 CO2 had higher CER asymptotes, higher apparent Michaelis‐Menten constants for light, higher apparent quantum yield, and lower light compensation points than leaflets adapted to and measured at 330 μmol mol−1 CO2. The CER‐CO2 curve parameters also indicated higher asymptotic ceilings of CER at high CO2 and higher apparent Michaelis‐ Menten constants for CO2 for the higher CO2 adapted leaflets. The CO2 compensation point was significantly lower in leaflets adapted to high CO2 levels than those adapted to ambient CO2, indicating a decrease in photorespiration. It was concluded that, during seed fill, leaflets adapted to high CO2 environments exhibited a capability to utilize CO2 and radiation more efficiently at elevated CO2 and throughout all light levels than leaflets grown at low CO2.