Why did the use of antimony-bearing alloys in Bronze Age Anatolia fall dormant after the Early Bronze Age?: A Case from Resuloğlu (Çorum, Turkey)

Abstract

The archaeometallurgical and archaeological research carried out in Anatolia has provided numerous examples of diverse alloying practices representing different levels of societal interaction, from the extraction of ores to the trade of finished goods and high level gift exchange among elites. While discussions abound about the exploitation of mines, mining settlements, possible origins of artifacts, resources of copper, arsenic, and especially tin to improve our knowledge about Anatolian Bronze Age mining and metallurgy, uncommon alloying practices including the use of antimony, nickel, or lead have long remained in the shadows of scholarly research. With the aim of bringing attention to the diversity in alloying practices in Anatolian metallurgy, this article focuses on the use of antimony through an appraisal of archaeological and textual evidence from Bronze Age Anatolia. Archaeometric data from several Early Bronze Age sites are re-examined alongside new data emerging from Resuloğlu (Çorum, Turkey) to explain the reduction of the variety of alloy types used. Portable-XRF analysis of artifacts from Resuloğlu and mineralogical analysis of an antimony-bearing ore fragment present evidence of use of antimony at the region during the Early Bronze Age. This period is followed by disappearance of antimony in material record until the Iron Age, while textual records weakly refer to its circulation within the region. This paper considers geological, technological, and socio-economic factors to explain why the use of antimony alloys falls dormant after the Early Bronze Age. The political and economic change towards centralization over geological and technological factors is proposed as an explanation.

Techniques of Blue, Green, and White Faience Bead Production Used at the Early Bronze Age Central Anatolian Site of RESULOĞLU (Turkey)

“…Unfortunately, there is a gap in the available data regarding the use of these local resources in the Halys basin during the EBA. Investigations of reserves of copper resources and relevant raw materials, which might have served well as potential resources for local industries in the region, are ongoing (Dardeniz 2020; Arıkan and Yıldırım 2018; Dardeniz and Yıldırım 2020). The elemental and isotopic characterization of local resources has recently begun as a part of the ‘Çorum Delice Valley archaeology, geoarchaeology, and ancient mining project’ to fully uncover the production potential of the region during the Bronze Age (Dardeniz et al .…”

“…The examination of metal burial gifts demonstrated the use of gold, silver, electrum, arsenical copper, tin bronze, antimonial copper, as well as other exotic alloys like copper‐silver‐gold (Zimmermann and Yıldırım 2007; Zimmerman et al . 2009; Dardeniz 2020; Dardeniz and Yıldırım 2020). The yellow‐colored beads were identified by X–ray diffraction (XRD) and X–ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses as being uzonite, an arsenic mineral (Yıldırım 2006: 13).…”

“…The use of metals and the ceramic traditions that existed within the Halys Basin during the EBA have long been studied (e.g., Arık 1937; Esin 1969; de Jesus 1980; Zimmermann and Yıldırım 2008; Yalçın and Yalçın 2013; Lehner et al . 2015; Dardeniz 2020; Dardeniz and Yıldırım 2020). However, despite the abundance of the artifacts discovered, there has been little discussion of the possible locations of production and the use of local raw materials, including, but not limited to, metal sources and fuel.…”

Towards a deeper understanding of the third millennium BC Iranian metallurgy: Use of synchrotron light for characterizing arsenic‐bearing minerals in metal objects from Espidej

“…1 This alloy could potentially establish a technological link between the communities of the south-central Iranian plateau and its neighbours like eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus. 2 Thus, a multianalytical research approach on arsenical copper objects seems necessary to explore the emergence of early alloys and alloying technologies in a broader geographical region and context. 3,4 Research on mining and metallurgy on the Iranian Plateau has increased over time with the growing numbers of excavations, yielding significant number of archaeological materials.…”

“…metallic sources) backdrop of the region, the metal assemblage of Espidej will provide an opportunity to examine (un)intentionality of alloying practices, emergence of early arsenical copper technology and the possible dispersion of the technology towards Anatolia. 2 Although understanding the metallurgical processes behind the production of artefacts has the utmost importance, it is often not possible to destructively analyse or sample archaeologically valuable objects. According to the rules and regulations related to working with Iranian cultural heritage, using non-destructive methods has top priority.…”