Toll like receptors 2 and 4 are upregulated during intestinal inflammation

Anti-inflammatory properties of an extract of M. ilicifolia in the human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cell line

“…As an exemplar of intestinal inflammation, in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease, TLRs are acknowledged to be important (Walsh et al, 2013), yet the role of TLR-2 is, at present, controversial. Some studies outline an upregulation of TLR-2 protein and gene expression in inflamed intestinal mucosa (Hausmann et al, 2002;Szebeni et al, 2008), whilst others demonstrate no differential gene expression of TLR2 (Fernandes et al, 2016). Yet, it is clear that TLRs act as pathogen recognition receptors, and TLR-2 specifically detects LTA, amongst other ligands, which leads to activation of the downstream pathway, resulting in secretion of cytokines such as IL-8.…”

Human β‐defensins and toll‐like receptors in the upper airway

“…With the knowledge that triggering of the innate immune response can present a possible risk for the human organisms (e.g. toxic shock syndrome) (42), it is reasonable to presume that only invasive pathogens, the stimulation by microbial components simultaneously or certain inflammatory conditions (43) could set of the innate response by influencing the TLR‐expression. Further studies are needed to determine regulation mechanisms of TLR to better understand innate immunity mechanisms in pathological conditions.…”

Expression of Toll-like Receptor 2 (TLR2), TLR4, and CD14 in Biopsy Samples of Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: Upregulated Expression of TLR2 in Terminal Ileum of Patients With Ulcerative Colitis

“…There are few papers mentioning the expression levels of TLR2 and TLR4 in terminal ileum of patients with IBD (Cario and Podolsky 2000; Hausmann et al 2002; Toiyama et al 2006). In previous studies, only samples of colon were examined.…”