The Texture of Psychoactive Illicit Drugs in Iran: Adulteration with Lead and other Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients

Abstract

Psychoactive illicit drugs are widely used all over the world. Due to the high demand for illicit drugs, adulteration of substances with poisonous and active pharmaceutical ingredients is a common phenomenon in some countries. Lead and other active pharmaceutical ingredients are among adulterants added to illicit drugs intentionally. In the present study, we analyzed four major abused street drugs in Iran's drug black market (opium, Iranian crack, ecstasy tablets, and crystal methamphetamine) to assess active pharmaceutical ingredients and determine a quantitative assay of lead. A total of 40 psychoactive drugs were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, and flame atomic absorption spectroscopy. The results demonstrated that psychoactive drugs were adulterated with different drug categories, such as tramadol, ketamine, methadone, acetaminophen, and caffeine. Lead was found in all analyzed samples, ranging from 9-90 ppm. The smallest lead level was detected in methamphetamine samples. Iranian crack samples contained the highest amount of lead. Psychoactive illicit drugs were adulterated with different drug classes and also lead. Lead-adulterated psychoactive drugs are among the new sources of exposure to lead, while illicit drugs' contamination with different drugs may present a health hazard for drug-abusing patients.

Molecular Insights and Clinical Outcomes of Drugs of Abuse Adulteration: New Trends and New Psychoactive Substances

“…The literature search yielded 35 studies ( Table 1 ) on seized cocaine ( n = 20), opioids ( n = 14), amphetamine-like stimulants ( n = 8), NPS ( n = 2), and THC ( n = 2). Although most manuscripts considered one adulterated drug, different substance classes were investigated in 7 studies [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Cocaine was the most frequently adulterated drug, whereas the highest number of adulterants were detected in amphetamine-like stimulants that were adulterated with 22 different substances [ 12 ].…”

No One Smiles at Me: The Double Displacement of Iranian Migrant Men as Refugees Who Use Drugs in Australia

“…Taking into account the above factors researchers also critically reflected on their own experiences of working in culturally responsive contexts both within research and in the Australian AOD sector to consider some of potential nuances of the study's design. Secondary resources related to Iranian men and migratory push factors to the global north (see Khosravi 2009; Salehi-Isfahani 2011; Sekechi 2018), an understanding of some of the patterns of AOD use and related harms within Iran (Aghababaei et al 2018;Akhgari et al 2018;Khajehkazemi et al 2013;IHRA 2008, p. 13;Shariatirad et al 2013;Vazirian et al 2005) recent migration patterns (ABS 2016) and review of the complex interplay of migration and resettlement stressors for people from refugee backgrounds to Australia (see Coello 1994, 2004) were discussed amongst researchers.…”

Lead poisoning in opium-addicted subjects, its correlation with pyrimidine 5′-nucleotidase activity and liver function tests

“…Exposure to automobile exhaust, industrial emissions, and contaminated foods through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contacts are the known causes of chronic and acute lead poisoning. [12] In the majority of cases, lead-exposed individuals are industrial workers dealing with lead-containing materials. [1] Complications resulting from excess lead exposure mainly include hematologic and liver problems.…”

“…[16] As for Iran, Aghaee-Afshar et al [7] have proven the presence of noticeable amount of lead in illegal opium samples which may be added to the opium by drug smugglers to increase its weight. Akhgari et al [2] confirmed the presence of lead in opium, heroin, ecstasy tablets, and crystal methamphetamine in Iran. Regarding its geographical position, Iran is a major rout of opium trafficking worldwide and opium is the most common abused substance in the country.…”