The Reappropriation of Stigmatizing Labels

Abstract

We present a theoretical model of reappropriation--taking possession of a slur previously used exclusively by dominant groups to reinforce another group's lesser status. Ten experiments tested this model and established a reciprocal relationship between power and self-labeling with a derogatory group term. We first investigated precursors to self-labeling: Group, but not individual, power increased participants' willingness to label themselves with a derogatory term for their group. We then examined the consequences of such self-labeling for both the self and observers. Self-labelers felt more powerful after self-labeling, and observers perceived them and their group as more powerful. Finally, these labels were evaluated less negatively after self-labeling, and this attenuation of stigma was mediated by perceived power. These effects occurred only for derogatory terms (e.g., queer, bitch), and not for descriptive (e.g., woman) or majority-group (e.g., straight) labels. These results suggest that self-labeling with a derogatory label can weaken the label's stigmatizing force.

Spanish slurs and stereotypes for Mexican-Americans in the USA: A context-sensitive account of derogation and appropriation

“…Moreover, recent empirical studies from the social sciences have also shown that slurs are often flexibly employed such that they may also, at least in some restricted contexts, be used non-derogatorily to diminish the derogatory force that the slur had originally carried (cf. Johnson, 2009;Croom, 2011, p. 355;Rahman, 2012;Croom, 2013, p. 200;Galinsky, et al 2013;Bartlett, et al 2014;Bianchi, 2014, p. 36;Croom, 2014a, p. 236-239). 35 For instance, comedian Carlos Mencia explained on NPR that he often uses slurs for Mexican Americans non-derogatorily just as Chris Rock often uses slurs for African Americans non-derogatorily (Johnson, 2009).…”

“…Moreover, recent empirical studies from the social sciences have also shown that slurs are often flexibly employed such that they may also, at least in some restricted contexts, be used non-derogatorily to diminish the derogatory force that the slur had originally carried (cf. Johnson, 2009;Croom, 2011, p. 355;Rahman, 2012;Croom, 2013, p. 200;Galinsky et al, 2013;Bartlett et al, 2014;Beaton & Washington, 2014;  3 Cf. adequacy condition 1 of 9 on p. 426 in Hom (2008), adequacy condition 3 of 6 on p. 355 in Croom (2011), and adequacy condition 3 of 7 on p. 200 in Croom (2013).…”

“…Bartlett et al (2014) also found that ''Slurs are used in a very wide variety of ways -both offensive and non-offensive,'' that ''There were very few cases that presented an imminent threat of violence, or where individuals directly or indirectly incited offline violent action,'' and that ''Slurs are most commonly used [on Twitter] in a nonoffensive, non-abusive manner: to express in-group solidarity or non-derogatory description'' (Bartlett et al, 2014, p. 6-7). Furthermore, in "The Reappropriation of Stigmatizing Labels,' ' Galinsky et al (2013) conducted ten empirical studies on (re-)appropriation to test its potential effects on speakers and listeners empirically and found that self-identifying with slur expressions (rather than being ascribed slur expressions by others) can actually weaken their stigmatizing force (Galinsky et al, 2013(Galinsky et al, , p. 2020cf. Galinsky et al, 2003).…”

“…Galinsky et al, 2003). More specifically, Galinsky et al (2013) found the following results from their experiments 1 through 10 (E1)-(E10) that may be useful to point out here: (E1) found that "participants in the high-power condition […] were more likely to label themselves with the derogatory term [such as spic or slut] than were participants in the low-power condition" (p. 2022), (E2) found that "participants in the group-power condition were more willing to label themselves with a derogatory group label […] compared with participants in the individual-power condition" (p. 2022-2023), (E3) found that "Participants in the self-label condition recalled feeling more powerful […] than did those in the other-label condition" (p. 2023), (E4) found that "Self-labeling led observers to view the labeled person as more powerful" (p. 2024), (E5) found that "a stigmatized minority, was seen as more powerful in the self-labeling condition […] than in the other-label condition" (p. 2024), (E6) found that "self-labeling increased perceptions of the stigmatized group's power" (p. 2024), (E7) found that "self-labeled participants viewed their own power as equivalent to the outgroup member's power," or in other words, that "Self-labeling equalized the perceived power difference between the stigmatized self-labelers and the outgroup individuals in the minds of the self-labelers" (p. 2025-2026), (E8) found that "Self-labeling increased perceptions of the stigmatized group's power over the label, which attenuated the negativity of the label" (p. 2027), (E9) found that "Self-labeling improved the evaluation of a derogatory label relative to otherlabeling" (p. 2027), and (E10) found that "Both men and women saw the stigma-tizing label bitch as less negative and supported female empowerment more after witnessing a woman label herself with this term than after witnessing another person label her with it (or after no labeling)" (p. 2027).…”

The importance of poetry, hip-hop, and philosophy for an enlisted aviator in the USAF (2000–2004) flying in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom

“…Knowing its use conditions […] largely involves being attuned to 480 this information. (p. 13) Also, in "The Reappropriation of Stigmatizing Labels," Galinsky et al (2013) conducted 10 empirical studies on the appropriation of slurs to test its potential effects on speakers and listeners empirically, and what they found was that selfidentifying with slurs rather than being targeted with slurs by others can actually weaken their stigmatizing force (p. 2020;see alsoBianchi, 2014;Croom, 2011Croom, , 2013Croom, , 2014Galinsky et al, 2003). Bianchi (2014) for instance points out that "targeted members or groups may appropriate their own slurs for nonderogatory purposes, in order to demarcate the group, and show a sense of intimacy and solidarity" (p. 37), and the hip-hop lyricist Talib Kweli has previously explained, "Our community has been 490 using the word [nigger] and trying to redefine the context of it for a long time" and "the fact of the matter is that there's a large segment of black people who grew up hearing the word intended as nothing but love" (quoted in Echegoyen, 2006).…”