The rapid expansion of Indonesia’s marine protected area requires improvement in management effectiveness

The inclusion of fisheries and tourism in marine protected areas to support conservation in Indonesia

“…Tourism infrastructure can further lead to socio-environmental conflicts; for example, with the number of tourists increasing every year, the need for resources such as energy, food and water are prioritised for visitors over the local communities [93]. Employment opportunities offered through the tourism industry are usually low-level positions as businesses are frequently owned by foreigners, and the availability of jobs is seasonal with the flow of tourists [93]. International tourism is not a realistic option for many highly remote areas, and care needs to be taken to avoid pushing this as a promising option for development.…”

“…Opportunities can further be provided for the welfare of local communities along with biodiversity protection when ecotourism is opted for over mass tourism [93], placing emphasis on the quality of tourism over the quantity of visitors. Community-based tourism is a form of ecotourism strongly recommended by MMAF as a more sustainable option over extractive activities [113].…”

“…Such events severely degrade coral reef ecosystems [116], including the fish communities that support fisheries [117]. Fishing communities often respond to the decreased fishery catches with short-term strategies that can further degrade the marine environment, such as a change to more destructive gear types or a change in fishing locations that may contravene regulations [93]. As a conservation measure that limits fishing and access, MPAs are unable to protect against coral bleaching and mortality (e.g.…”

“…As a nation at the heart of the Coral Triangle biodiversity hotspot that harbours 16 % of global coral reefs [4], Indonesia has rapidly grown the number and extent of its MPAs over the last two decades. As of January 2020, the nation held a total protected marine estate of 23.9 million hectares (ha) [5], with an ambitious target to reach 32.5 million ha by 2030 [6]. Indonesia is highly dependent on marine resources, ranking as the eighth most fish-dependent country worldwide in 2018 [7].…”

Evaluating annual severe coral bleaching risk for marine protected areas across Indonesia

“…Indonesia has a target to protect 3,250,000 km 2 of marine areas within MPAs by 2030 -in alignment with the Aichi Target 11 of having 10% of its national waters protected and the commitment to the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development [6,46]. Indonesia defines MPAs as 'spatially defined, marine, coastal or small island areas that are protected and managed by a zoning system to achieve sustainable management of fisheries resources and environmental outcomes' (PP RI No.…”