The Psychology of Reciprocity in International Relations

Norms, Culture, and Cognitive Patterns in Foreign Aid Negotiations

“…Pre-existing images create stereotyped expectations, and influence negotiation behavior. They also pose obstacles to the correct interpretation of the motives behind an opponent's action (Larson, 1988;Rubin and Brown, 1975 p. 131). Failure to appreciate the cultural patterns of your fellow negotiator makes it difficult to predict that negotiator's future decisions.…”

The Effect of US Foreign Policy on the Relationship Between South and North Korea: Time Series Analysis of the Post-Cold War Era

“…It is difficult to develop cooperation if power between states is imbalanced because more powerful states do not fear the adversary's retaliation (Rubin and Brown 1975;Zartman 1997;Goldstein et al 2001). Third, it is difficult to change the image of the enemy, and international cooperation does not easily evolve even with reciprocal strategies (Larson 1988;Tetlock 1998 ;Goldstein et al 2001). Fourth, when cooperative initiatives are absent, reciprocity might become "locked in"-but locked in on mutual competition or "defection" that generates an endless arms race (Patchen 1987, 176;Goldstein et al 2001,591).…”

When Does Reciprocity in the Actions of Nations Occur?

“…The effect of the other side's prior action on the actor's expectations will depend on how cooperative or conflictive the action is interpreted as being and what it is seen as indicating about the other's objectives and intentions (Coddington, 1968;Snyder and Diesing, 1977;Larson, 1988). An actor does not consider the absolute nature of the other's action (e.g., how cooperative or conflictive it is) in isolation from other actions by both sides.…”