The Impact of Dietary Intake and Sun Exposure on Vitamin D Deficiency among Couples

Abstract

Background: The main sources of vitamin D are sun exposure and diet. There is a gap in our knowledge about the contribution of these factors to vitamin D level among couples in Bahrain. Objective: To determine vitamin D dietary intake and sun exposure and their impact on vitamin D level. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Maternity hospitals. Method: Data were collected using an adapted pre-validated food frequency questionnaire. It was adjusted to reflect the local food items. Vitamin D intake below 600 IU was considered low. The level was assayed as 25(OH)D using chemiluminescence method. SPSS-20 was used for data analysis. P value < 0.05 was considered significant. Result: Three hundred and twenty five couples were included in the study. The mean dietary intake of vitamin D was low, but not significantly different between men and women. Vitamin D level was <50 nmol/L in 209 (64.3%) men and 292 (89.8%) women. The mean 25(OH)D level in males (46.06 ± 12.97 nmol/L) was significantly higher than females (33.12 ± 13.48 nmol/L). There was a significant association between dietary intake and 25(OH)D levels in both men and women. Sun exposure was also found to be significantly associated with 25(OH)D level in males but not in females which is attributed to the use of veil. Conclusion: Low vitamin D intake and inadequate sun exposure lead to hypovitaminosis D. There is a need to increase awareness and mandate the fortification of milk, dairy products and to supplement veiled women and those at risk of deficiency with vitamin D.

Vitamin D Intake among Premenopausal Women Living in Jeddah: Food Sources and Relationship to Demographic Factors and Bone Health

“…The low vitamin D intake observed in the present study is consistent with that which has been previously reported in the Middle East. In a study of Bahraini women ( n =325, mean age = 28 years), Alhaddad et al reported a mean dietary intake of 187 IU/day of vitamin D, which was insufficient to meet bodily requirements [ 31 ]. Production companies in Bahrain voluntarily fortify dairy products, while milk and dairy products imported from Saudi Arabia are also fortified with 400 IU/L of vitamin D. It appears that the current fortification measures used in Saudi Arabia and Bahrain are not sufficient to meet the EAR for vitamin D intake in women in both countries.…”

The Profile of Vitamin D among Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients

“…Two studies from Bahrain revealed the extent of hypovitaminosis D among adults and mothers and their newborns in the labor room. Both studies addressed the controversies that entails the diagnosis and management of hypovitaminosis D and highlighted a striking fact of high prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in a very sunny community like Bahrain [14][15][16][17] .…”

“…The Bahrain nutritional survey published in 1995 addressed the need to estimate the prevalence of micronutrients' deficiencies including vitamin D 13 . In 2013 and 2014, four studies were published in Bahrain, which highlighted the prevalence of hypovitaminosis D and the impact of the deficiency if any [14][15][16][17] . These studies revealed a high prevalence of hypovitaminosis D ranging from 60%-90%, a predilection for females and associated with lack of sun exposure, smoking and high BMI.…”

Vitamin D Doses from Solar Ultraviolet and Dietary Intakes in Patients with Depression: Results of a Case-Control Study

“…Using a matched case-control design, we estimated the sample needed for our research to be 75 patients and 75 controls. Sample size calculations are based on a z test, with a 1:1 ratio design assuming the difference in vitamin D3 intake by 33% based on previous research [ 23 ]. The sample size was estimated for the two-sided test with error probabilities of alpha = 0.05 and 80% power (beta = 0.20).…”