The Heavy Plough and the Agricultural Revolution in Medieval Europe

Abstract

This research tests the long-standing hypothesis put forth by Lynn White, Jr. (1962) that the adoption of the heavy plough in Northern Europe led to increased population density and urbanization. White argued that it was impossible to take proper advantage of the fertile clay soils of Northern Europe before the invention and widespread adoption of the heavy plough. We implement the test in a difference-indifference setup by exploiting regional variation in the presence of fertile clay soils across European regions as well as across Danish historical counties. Consistent with the hypothesis, we find that regions with relatively more fertile clay soil experienced higher urbanization and population growth after the heavy plough had its breakthrough, which was approximately around the closing of the first millennium AD. Our findings suggest that the heavy plough accounts for around 10% of the increase in urbanization and population density during the High Middle Ages.

Military conflict and the rise of urban Europe

“…Abramson and Boix (2014) argue that urban clusters were most likely to form in productive agricultural zones. White (1962) and Andersen et al (2015) relate the adoption of the heavy plow to greater urbanization in zones with clay soils. Motamed et al (2014) find that a location's agricultural potential and transport costs influence the likelihood of urbanization.…”

“…White (1962) and Andersen et al (2015) argue that the breakthrough adoption of the heavy plow in 1000 led to greater urbanization in European regions with clay soils. To 16 Given network effects, Atlantic trade may have been important for cities near, but not along, the Atlantic coast.…”

“…Bosker et al match the soil quality data to cities based on latitudes and longitudes. 18 Andersen et al (2015) provide data on soil suitability for a plow-positive crop (barley) for NUTS2 units, which we match to sample cities in our database. We test three levels of barley suitability: (i) high, where Andersen et al's suitability index exceeds 70, (ii) good, where this index exceeds 55, and (iii) medium, where this index exceeds 40.…”

Short Global History of Fountains

“…At that time, following a period of mild climate (the so-called Medieval Warm Period) and the widespread use of the heavy plough [52,53] coupled with flourishing trade between the Levant and North Europe carried out by the Italian cities, urban population and wealth of the cities increased. Italian cities were considered the richest in Europe [37] then, and intense building activity started in most cities of any importance.…”

Bones of Contention: The Political Economy of Height Inequality

“…When producers govern themselves, state institutions remain relatively horizontal, there are few transfers of resources across individuals through political mechanisms, and the distribution of income matches the underlying structure of the economy. 7 The invention and widespread use of the heavy plow in about 1000 AD in Europe conferred a productivity advantage on areas with dense, clay soils, irrespective of other political and economic attributes (Andersen, Jensen, and Skovsgaard 2013). Differences in the fertility of soil will lead to income heterogeneity.…”