The effects of cigarette smoking on pain and anxiety

Effects of smoking on thermal pain threshold in deprived and minimally-deprived habitual smokers

“…At first glance, our data are at variance with results indicating that deprived smokers exhibit lower pain endurance levels than minimally-deprived smokers (Silverstein 1982), and that smoking a nicotine-containing cigarette leads to a pain threshold increase even in minim-475 ally-deprived smokers (Pomerleau et al 1984;Fertig et al 1986). The divergent results could be attributed to methodological differences regarding the pain stimuli (cold pressure, elcctrical stimuli, thermal pain), the control condition (no smoking, no-nicotine cigarette, pre-smoking measurement) and the experimental design (betweensubjects or within-subjects design).…”

“…Pomerleau and coworkers (Pomerleau et al 1984;Fertig et al 1986) also could demonstrate that the antiCorrespondence to: P. Pauli nociceptive effect ofnicotine occurs in minimally-deprived smokers. They argue that nicotine itself can produce direct relief from pain and that this reinforcement effect is independent of the state of nicotine withdrawal.…”

“…Several studies found no effects of smoking or nicotine intake on pain threshold or pain tolerance (Waller et al 1983;Sult and Moss 1986;Knott 1990). Other results indicate that (a) deprived smokers exhibit lower pain threshold levels than nonsmokers or minimally-deprived smokers (Nesbitt 1973;Silverstein 1982) and that (b) smoking a nicotinecontaining cigarette leads to a pain threshold increase in smokers (Nesbitt 1973;Silverstein 1982;Pomerleau et al 1984;Fertig et al 1986). …”

Tobacco/nicotine and endogenous brain opioids

“…Hospitalized patients who were smokers and former smokers, and who had cigarettes and nicotine withheld, used more opiate analgesics than did nonsmokers (Woodside, 2000). Studies using electric shock or exposure to ice-cold water also demonstrated that nicotine-deprived smokers had lower pain thresholds than did smokers supplied cigarettes or snuff (Fertig et al, 1986;Pomerleau et al, 1984;Silverstein, 1982). Kakigi and colleagues (unpublished, 2007) have shown that tobacco smoking did not alter the subject's perception of laser evoked pain.…”

“…After the initial local stimulant effect of nicotine, the pain response to acetylcholine was abolished. Pomerleau and colleagues have shown that smoking a nicotine-containing cigarette increased the pain awareness thresholds in the cold pressor test (Fertig et al, 1986;Pomerleau et al, 1984). Pauli et al (1993) demonstrated that cigarette smoking decreased sensitivity to thermal stimuli.…”