The effect of rock strength on weathering rates of sandstone used for Angkor temples in Cambodia

Waragai, Tetsuya

doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.04.006

Cited by 34 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 40 publications

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“…Several weathering processes are present for sandstone weathering at Angkor (e.g., Uchida et al 1999;Waragai 2002Waragai , 2005aArchaeological survey of India 2006;Hosono et al 2006;André et al 2008André et al , 2011Siedel et al 2008Siedel et al , 2010. However, there are very few discussions regarding the directional dependence of these processes (e.g., Waragai 2005bWaragai , 2016Waragai et al 2006;Hiki and Waragai 2014). This is due to the availability of climate data at the study area.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…These weathering processes are thought to be restricted by direction dependent (Waragai 2005b;Waragai et al 2006;André et al 2012;Hiki 2012;Hiki and Waragai 2014;Waragai 2016), especially for the temples at Angkor. Regarding cultural stone weathering, previous studies have shown the importance of direction or aspect related to heating-cooling repetitions and moisture changes (Meierding 1993;Paradise 1995Paradise , 2002Williams and Robinson 2000;Waragai 2017).…”

Section: Cultural Stone Weathering Researchmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Influence of microclimate on the directional dependence of sandstone pillar weathering in Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia

Waragai

Hiki²

2019

Prog Earth Planet Sci

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Angkor Wat temple, mainly composed of sandstone blocks, displays a type of religious architecture that signifies the worldviews of the Khmer and Hindu religions. The temple is a part of a UNESCO World Heritage site. However, there are numerous occurrences of hollows, i.e., depression-like notches, that have developed at the base of its sandstone pillars due to wet-dry and salt weathering. These pillars are variably weathered due to differences in the directions of the pillar surfaces and galleries in the temple. In this study, we analyze the differences in the hollow depths based on the sandstone hardness and water content, as well as a 5-year record of the temperature and humidity in the galleries. The results show that the hollow depths are profound in the outsides of the inner pillars and shallow on the northern side of the first gallery. The hollow depth increases with increasing values obtained by multiplying water content and moisture fluctuations, resulting from direct insolation together with rainfall.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Cultural Stone Weathering Researchmentioning

confidence: 99%

Influence of microclimate on the directional dependence of sandstone pillar weathering in Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia

Waragai

Hiki²

2019

Prog Earth Planet Sci

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“…Therefore, it is not always possible to measure the surface recession rate in natural rock outcrops (Moses et al, 2014). Therefore, the determination to calculate the rock weathering rates of tombstones or ancient buildings built with rock bricks, and their artificial cutting time, has become the main approach for calculating the weathering rate of rocks on a decadal or centennial time scale (Takahashi et al, 1994;Cooke et al, 1995;Robinson and Williams, 1999;Williams and Robinson, 2000;Johnson et al, 2010;Morgan, 2016;Waragai, 2016;Mooers et al, 2017). In fact, relatively few field observations have been made on the rate at which weathering occurs on natural rock outcrops (Turkington and Paradise, 2005).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A new method for determining weathering rates in weathering pits

Wang

Huang

Feng

2020

Earth Surf Processes Landf

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Determining the rates of rock weathering is difficult because, firstly, the weathering rate of rocks is usually so slow that it is difficult to measure; secondly, it is also difficult to determine the start time and duration of weathering. The Shanxi River Valley in Fujian, China dried up after a reservoir was built upstream in 1959, and became a stone quarry site. Quarrying ceased in 1977, so a large amount of quarry wastes with artificially excavated surfaces were left in the valley. The concave‐upward curved rocky surface, broken by manual excavation, easily contains rainwater in its central part, which was easily weathered into a more concave surface. Plaster mould casting was performed in situ on such a concave surface of an excavated stone rock in the valley and scanned with a high‐precision 3D scanner to obtain 3D data of the concave‐upward rock surface and its more concave middle part, which was considered as an initial weathering pit. The 3D model provided an in‐depth understanding of the initial formation process of weathering pits, indicating that: (1) the average weathering rate of a weathering pit is 10.8 ± 0.49 cm ka−1; (2) weathering pits are generally formed by standing water in depressions on a flat near‐horizontal rock surface due to weathering actions involving water; (3) the deepening rate of a weathering pit is about four times greater than that of the surrounding area; (4) the growth of a weathering pit can begin in some small concavities on the flat rock surface without pre‐existing depressions and gradually expands; (5) a weathering pit is generally wider than deep or with a flat bottom due to expansion with a lateral weathering rate that is greater than that of the vertical, and the lamination of the host rock is not necessary for the formation of flat‐floored weathering pits. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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“…For example at Petra, the critical average temperature threshold is approximately 21°C and the mean annual precipitation is about 298 mm which explains the proliferation of lichen at the stone surface, a phenomenon not observable on a desert climate at Madâin Sâlih. Microclimate (wetting-Drying cycles) constitute also an important factor of weathering sandstones [4,7,8]. Studying weathering processes damaging sandstone at Albarracin Cultural Park (Spain) under strongly seasonal climate-mean annual temperature -9°C, Benito et al [9] concluded that salt and wettingdrying were the main factors leading to rock degradation.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Chemical and physical analysis of sandstone and relationship with weathering damage of Madâin Sâlih monuments

Medini

Mgaidi

2018

Journal of Taibah University for Science

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The present work aims to study the effect of weathering-produced sands across the area in the weathering damage of sandstones in Madâin Sâlih (Saudi Arabia). Our approach is to investigate some chemical and physical properties of sand samples from the study area. The weathered point in this arid area is Qsar al Bint or Place of the daughter monument in which five different samples have been collected. The analysis of scanning electron microscope images reveals that sand surfaces have different roughness and some surface areas were broken except for the rock samples. According to energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis, the rock samples reveal the presence of Ca, Mg, Na, K, Al and Fe at the surface. Mineralogy study using X-ray diffraction revealed that sandstones are clay-cemented sandstone. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy analysis confirmed that the inorganic binding agent of silica grains is essentially Kaolonite (Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4).

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The effect of rock strength on weathering rates of sandstone used for Angkor temples in Cambodia

Cited by 34 publications

References 40 publications

Influence of microclimate on the directional dependence of sandstone pillar weathering in Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia

Influence of microclimate on the directional dependence of sandstone pillar weathering in Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia

A new method for determining weathering rates in weathering pits

Chemical and physical analysis of sandstone and relationship with weathering damage of Madâin Sâlih monuments

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