Synthesis of SnO₂pillared carbon using long chain alkylamine grafted graphene oxide: an efficient anode material for lithium ion batteries

Abstract

With the objective of developing new advanced composite materials that can be used as anodes for lithium ion batteries (LIBs), herein we describe the synthesis of SnO2 pillared carbon using various alkylamine (hexylamine; dodecylamine and octadecylamine) grafted graphene oxides and butyl trichlorotin precursors followed by its calcination at 500 °C for 2 h. While the grafted alkylamine induces crystalline growth of SnO2 pillars, thermal annealing of alkylamine grafted graphene oxide results in the formation of amorphous carbon coated graphene. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) results reveal the successful formation of SnO2 pillared carbon on the graphene surface. X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Raman spectroscopy characterization corroborates the formation of rutile SnO2 crystals on the graphene surface. A significant rise in the BET surface area is observed for SnO2 pillared carbon, when compared to pristine GO. Electrochemical characterization studies of SnO2 pillared carbon based anode materials showed an enhanced lithium storage capacity and fine cyclic performance in comparison with pristine GO. The initial specific capacities of SnO2 pillared carbon are observed to be 1379 mA h g(-1), 1255 mA h g(-1) and 1360 mA h g(-1) that decrease to 750 mA h g(-1), 643 mA h g(-1) and 560 mA h g(-1) depending upon the chain length of grafted alkylamine on the graphene surface respectively. Electrochemical impedance spectral analysis reveals that the exchange current density of SnO2 pillared carbon based electrodes is higher, corroborating its enhanced electrochemical activity in comparison with GO based electrodes.

Pressure‐Induced Synthesis of Homogeneously Dispersed Sn/SnO2/C Nanocomposites as Advanced Anodes for Lithium‐Ion Batteries

“…The formation of interfacial chemical bonds of SnC in the SnO x /C composites is favorable for improving the structural stability, thus leading to better cyclability . In the previous reports, the central position of binding energy of SnC bonds in the XPS spectra of C 1s is around 283.6 eV. The C1s spectra of the four samples are deconvoluted into four peaks, i.e., CO at round 289.2 eV, CO at around 286.0 eV, CC at around 284.8 eV, and CSn at around 283.6 eV (Figure S6, Supporting Information).…”

“…The results indicate that the crystallinity of carbon is not the main influence factor of lithium ion storage performance in our obtained composites. The formation of interfacial chemical bonds of SnC in the SnO x /C composites is favorable for improving the structural stability, thus leading to better cyclability . In the previous reports, the central position of binding energy of SnC bonds in the XPS spectra of C 1s is around 283.6 eV.…”

Rational Design of Core‐Shell Structured C@SnO2@CNTs Composite with Enhanced Lithium Storage Performance

“…X‐ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) were carried out to explore the chemical compositions and surface electronic states of three samples. In the high‐resolution Sn 3d spectrum (Figure a), the two strong peaks with binding energy gap of 8.4 eV are assigned to Sn 3d 5/2 and Sn 3d 3/2 , demonstrating that tin exists in the Sn 4+ ‐O state without other valence . The O 1s spectra of all samples (Figure b) can be resolved into three peaks centered about 530.5 eV, 532 eV and 533.4 eV, corresponding to Sn−O, C=O and C−O−C/−OH .…”

“…In the high-resolution Sn 3d spectrum (Figure 3a), the two strong peaks with binding energy gap of 8.4 eV are assigned to Sn 3d 5/2 and Sn 3d 3/2 , demonstrating that tin exists in the Sn 4 + -O state without other valence. [52] The O 1s spectra of all samples (Figure 3b) can be resolved into three peaks centered about 530.5 eV, 532 eV and 533.4 eV, corresponding to SnÀ O, C=O and CÀ OÀ C/À OH. [53] In general, the O elements in the composite is regarded from SnO 2 and oxygen functional groups on CNTs.…”

Tin Oxide-Carbon-Coated Sepiolite Nanofibers with Enhanced Lithium-Ion Storage Property

“…The porous structure provides a short diffusion length for Li + ions and electron during the electrochemical reaction. It is expected that such a rational design of SnO 2 – C@Sep effectively integrates the intriguing functionalities of the three building blocks: the high electrical conductivity of C, the high theoretical capacity of SnO 2 , and the excellent structural stability of Sep, so it will be capable of greatly improving the practical usage of SnO 2 for LIBs [48, 49]. …”