Sulfur

Abstract

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 2. Historical Background 3. Properties 3.1. Physical State 3.2. Viscosity 3.3. Other Physical Properties 3.4. Chemical Properties 4. Raw Materials for Sulfur Production 4.1. Elemental Sulfur Resources 4.2. Sulfide Ores 4.3. Fossil Fuels 4.4. Sulfates 5. Production from Native Deposits 5.1. Flotation 5.2. Melting Out 5.3. Distillation 5.4. Flotation with Melting Out 5.5. The Frasch Process 5.5.1. Structure of “Fraschable” Sulfur Deposits 5.5.2. Outline of the Process 5.5.3. Sulfur Purity 5.5.4. Energy Consumption 5.5.5. The U.S. Frasch Industry 5.5.6. The Mexican Frasch Industry 6. The Claus Process 6.1. Occurrence of Hydrogen Sulfide 6.2. Hydrogen Sulfide Removal from Gases 6.3. History of the Claus Process 6.4. Chemistry of the Claus Process 6.5. Claus Plant Configurations 6.6. The Claus ‐ Oxygen Process 6.7. Troubleshooting 6.8. Optimization of Sulfur Recovery Units by Use of Analyzers 7. Increased Sulfur Recovery 7.1. Selective Oxidation 7.1.1. The Superclaus Process, the Euroclaus ® Process 7.1.2. The Recycle Selectox Process 7.1.3. The Once‐Through Selectox Process 7.2. Tail Gas Treatment 7.2.1. Sub‐Dewpoint Processes 7.2.1.1. The Sulfreen, Hydrosulfreen, and Doxosulfreen Processes 7.2.1.2. The CBA Process 7.2.1.3. The MCRC Process 7.2.2. Processes Working on Reduced Tail Gases 7.2.2.1. The SCOT and Super‐SCOT Processes 7.2.2.2. The Sulften Process 7.2.2.3. Solvents for Regenerative H 2 S Removal 7.2.2.4. The BSR/Selectox Process 7.2.3. Processes Working on Oxidized Tail Gas 7.2.3.1. The Wellman ‐ Lord Process 7.2.3.2. The Clintox Process 7.2.4. Biodesulfurization; Thiopaq Process 7.3. Purification 7.3.1. Arsenic and Selenium Removal 7.3.2. Melting of Stretford Sulfur 7.3.3. Degassing of Claus Sulfur 7.4. Sulfur Management; the OmniSulf Process 8. Gas‐Phase Reduction of Sulfur Dioxide 8.1. The Allied Chemicals Process 8.2. Other Processes with Gas as Reducing Agent 8.3. Processes with Coke or Coal as Reducing Agent 9. Commercial Grades and Forms of Sulfur 9.1. Quality 9.2. Commercial Forms for Bulk Transport 9.2.1. Dry Bulk Sulfur 9.2.2. Liquid Sulfur 9.2.3. Formed Sulfur 9.2.3.1. Slating 9.2.3.2. Wet Pelletizing (Water Prilling) 9.2.3.3. Air Prilling 9.2.3.4. Other Prilling Processes 9.2.3.5. Drum Granulation: The Procor GX Process 9.2.3.6. Spouted Bed Granulation 9.3. Special Forms and Grades 10. Uses 10.1. Agriculture 10.2. Construction Materials 10.3. Sulfur‐Containing Batteries 10.4. Other Potential Uses

Direct Utilization of Elemental Sulfur in the Synthesis of Microporous Polymers for Natural Gas Sweetening

“…Sulfur is one of the world's most versatile and common elements. 1 However, unlike that of other chemical commodities, production of sulfur is mostly ''involuntary'' in that it mainly arises from petroleum refineries and natural gas processing, thus creating a global surplus of sulfur. 2 Currently, elemental sulfur is mainly used in the production of sulfuric acid, which is a main commodity in the preparation of fertilizers.…”

“…2 Currently, elemental sulfur is mainly used in the production of sulfuric acid, which is a main commodity in the preparation of fertilizers. 1 In addition, it has been also investigated as a concrete additive. 3 More recently, lithium-sulfur batteries, [4][5][6] polymeric materials [7][8][9][10] synthesized via copolymerization of sulfur, and various organic transformations have also emerged as important, high-value, yet relatively small-scale applications for elemental sulfur.…”

The diffusion coefficient of H2S in liquid sulfur

“…This verified the high purity of the sulfur sample in this study. It was also found that the sulfur occurred in the monoclinič -form which had a melting point of 391.72 K. Literature reported this value between 392.3 and 387.5 K [24]. For the second run after the sulfur cooled down and re-melted, the melting point of the sulfur shifted to 375.65 K, which is corresponding to elemental sulfur's nacreous -form.…”

“…For the second run after the sulfur cooled down and re-melted, the melting point of the sulfur shifted to 375.65 K, which is corresponding to elemental sulfur's nacreous -form. Valves reported in literature were between 376.4 and 379.8 K [24]. The sulfur used in the diffusion tests was in the same condition as it was in the first run, therefore is expected to be in the monoclinicˇ-form.…”

“…Besides the well acknowledged temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficient, it is also worthwhile to mention two other important factors. First is that the viscosity of the sulfur usually reaches its minimum value when the temperature is around 423 K [24]. The other factor is the structural change/deformation of the sulfur-as more radicals and less rings of elemental sulfur are present at a higher temperature, less diffusion resistance is placed at the molecular scale.…”