“…For example, Sampson, Raudenbush, and Earls (1997) found evidence that concentrated disadvantage predicts violence and homicide, controlling for the effects of collective efficacy (see also Morenoff, Sampson, & Raudenbush, 2001); and Tcherni (2011) found that poverty, race, and divorce rates are robust predictors of homicide rates across U.S. counties and over time. Of the "big three" structural factors, disadvantage has the strongest and most invariant effect on homicide-across locale, time period, and homicide subtypes (Kubrin, 2003;Kubrin & Herting, 2003;Parker, 1989;Tcherni, 2011;Williams & Flewelling, 1988). Even in areas with little variation in disadvantage and in nations with low homicide rates, disadvantage remains the strongest ecological correlate of homicide (Hannon, 2005;Nieuwbeerta, McCall, Elffers, & Wittebrood, 2008;Stults, 2010;Thompson & Gartner, 2014).…”