School-based exposure to hazardous air pollutants and grade point average: A multi-level study

Abstract

The problem of environmental health hazards around schools is serious but it has been neglected by researchers and analysts. This is concerning because children are highly susceptible to the effects of chemical hazards. Some ecological studies have demonstrated that higher school-level pollution is associated with lower aggregate school-level standardized test scores at school, likely related to increased respiratory illnesses and/or impaired cognitive development. However, an important question remains unexamined: How do school-level exposures impact individual children’s academic performance? To address this, we obtained socio-demographic and grades data from the parents of 1,888 fourth and fifth grade children in the El Paso (Texas, USA) Independent School District in 2012. El Paso is located on the US-side of the Mexican border and has a majority Mexican-origin population. School-based hazardous air pollution (HAP) exposure was calculated using census block-level US Environmental Protection Agency National Air Toxics Assessment risk estimates for respiratory and diesel particulate matter (PM). School-level demographics were obtained from the school district. Multi-level models adjusting for individual-level covariates (e.g., age, sex, race/ethnicity, English proficiency, and economic deprivation) and school-level covariates (e.g., percent of students economically disadvantaged and student-teacher ratio) showed that higher school-level HAPs were associated with lower individual-level grade point averages. An interquartile range increase in school-level HAP exposure was associated with an adjusted 0.11 to 0.40 point decrease in individual students’ grade point averages (GPAs), depending on HAP type and emission source. Respiratory risk from HAPs had a larger effect on GPA than did diesel PM risk. Non-road mobile and total respiratory risk had the largest effects on children’s GPA of all HAP variables studied and only mother’s level of education had a larger effect than those two variables on children’s GPA. The five school-level demographic indicators were only weakly associated with GPA. The study findings indicate the need for regulations on school siting and adjacent land uses to protect children’s environmental health.

Early-life exposure to air pollution and greater use of academic support services in childhood: a population-based cohort study of urban children

“…Future research which compares children who remain in high-pollution neighborhoods throughout their childhood to children who move to lower pollution neighborhoods would help elucidate the question of exposure timing. Additionally, recent research has observed cross-sectional associations between parent-reported grade point averages and children’s ambient exposure to air toxics at school [28]. Incorporating exposure at school locations in future research would also improve our ability to estimate the effect of air toxics on children’s cognitive health.…”

Examining the Association between Socioeconomic Status and Exposure to Carcinogenic Emissions in Gyeonggi of South Korea: A Multi-Level Analysis

“…Because SES is typically characterized using aggregated data at the regional level in many environmental justice studies, there is relatively limited evidence on how individual level SES factors are associated with exposure to toxic chemicals. SES data aggregated at the regional-level are relatively easy to acquire from public sources, although the individual level SES factors are more difficult to obtain [23,33]. Moreover, recent environmental inequity studies have emphasized importance of considering SES at both individual and regional levels [27,31,33].…”

“…SES data aggregated at the regional-level are relatively easy to acquire from public sources, although the individual level SES factors are more difficult to obtain [23,33]. Moreover, recent environmental inequity studies have emphasized importance of considering SES at both individual and regional levels [27,31,33]. The use of these multi-level data requires a more complex statistical approach, such as multi-level modeling, than the Ordinary Least Square model typically used in previous studies [33,34].…”

“…Moreover, recent environmental inequity studies have emphasized importance of considering SES at both individual and regional levels [27,31,33]. The use of these multi-level data requires a more complex statistical approach, such as multi-level modeling, than the Ordinary Least Square model typically used in previous studies [33,34].…”

‘Every breath we take: the lifelong impact of air pollution’ – a call for action

“…20 It is essential that our schoolchildren are protected from pollution, with considerable health and other benefits to be gained, including educational attainment. 21 A 2015 study has shown that the introduction of a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) in London had no significant effect on respiratory health in schoolchildren; 22 more drastic interventions are needed.…”