Risk factors associated with clinical signs of vesicular stomatitis and seroconversion without clinical disease in Colorado horses during the 2014 outbreak

Surveillance along the Rio Grande during the 2020 Vesicular Stomatitis Outbreak Reveals Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of and Viral RNA Detection in Black Flies

“…New Mexico has a long history of VSV epizootics and has played an important role as a steppingstone between introduction of the virus into the US and subsequent expansion through the mountain west. Much effort has gone into understanding the transmission dynamics of VSV on or near premises with a history of VSV transmission in NM [17,19,23,32,[49][50][51] and other US states [32,52]. However, few studies have investigated the dynamics of potential VSV vectors at a fine scale within the outbreak range of the virus, with the exception of a detailed study of sandfly distributions in the southwestern US [53].…”

Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Transmission: A Comparison of Incriminated Vectors

“…Even though the details of the transmission cycle (Figure 1) are not completely understood, VSV has been isolated from multiple arthropods collected in enzootic areas and during epizootics, demonstrating a biological association in space and time of the suspected vector species with the occurrence of clinical infection in the host [60,67]. Accumulating evidence supports the argument that insect vectors have an important role in the initial introduction of VSV into animal herds and contribute to the epizootic transmission [1,2,7,46,69]. The most implicated primary vector species, black flies and Culicoides midges, are known agricultural pests in high abundance at the time when outbreaks occur.…”

“…Virus-laden saliva and vesicular exudates easily contaminate facilities and the environment, allowing an efficient animal to animal or fomite to animal transmission [3,42,59,65]. Research has shown that insects also play a significant role in VSV dissemination in two proposed ways, as mechanical vectors by either biting or nonbiting flies, or as biological vectors by hematophagous biting flies [60,66,67,68,69]. Currently, several aspects of VSV transmission are not well understood, particularly: (1) Where and how the proposed insect vectors acquire the virus in nature; (2) if the virus isolated from insects captured in field collections during epizootics correspond to biological or mechanical transmission and are epidemiologically relevant; (3) if any of the currently incriminated or suspected insect species are involved in VSV maintenance during inter-epidemic periods; and (4) if the low or often undetectable viremia in infected mammals indicates that other transmission mechanisms may be involved for vectors to become infected.…”

Pathogenesis and control of Senecavirus A in swine

“…In experimental studies with swine VSNJ isolates were more virulent than VSIV (172). Outbreaks in livestock, mostly equines, in the US typically occur every 8-10 years in the west, but recently they have been occurring more frequently (173). The last reported incident of VS in swine in the US was 1968 (174).…”