The objective of this study was to evaluate morbidity and mortality in preweaned dairy heifer calves based on different health, feeding, and management practices, as well as environmental factors. This study was conducted as part of the calf component of the National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2014 study, which included 104 dairy operations in 13 states. The calf component was an 18-mo longitudinal study focused on dairy heifer calves from birth to weaning; data were collected on 2,545 calves. The percentage morbidity for all calves enrolled in the study was 33.9%. Backward elimination model selection was used after univariate screening to determine which management practices and environmental factors significantly affected morbidity and mortality. The final morbidity model included birth weight, serum IgG concentration, ventilation type, and average temperature-humidity index (THI) during the preweaning period. After controlling for other independent variables in the model, calves born at a higher birth weight had a lower predicted risk of morbidity than calves with a lower birth weight. An increase in serum IgG concentration was associated with decreased morbidity. Calves housed in positive- or cross-ventilated systems had a 2.2 times higher odds of developing disease compared with calves housed in natural ventilation systems. Average THI during the preweaning period was inversely correlated with morbidity; as THI increased, the predicted morbidity risk decreased. The percent mortality for all calves enrolled in the study was 5.0%. The final mortality model included birth weight, serum IgG concentration, amount of fat/day in the liquid diet, and morbidity. After controlling for other independent variables in the model, calves born at a higher birth weight had a lower risk of mortality. An increase in serum IgG concentration decreased the risk of mortality. The odds of mortality were 3.1 times higher in calves fed ≤0.15 kg of fat/d in the liquid diet compared with calves fed ≥0.22 kg of fat/d. The odds of mortality were 4.7 times higher in calves that experienced any disease throughout the preweaning period than in calves with no disease. In summary, morbidity and mortality were both associated with birth weight and serum IgG concentration. Additionally, morbidity was associated with ventilation type and average monthly THI, and mortality was associated with amount of fat per day in the liquid diet and morbidity.

Passive immunity in calves is evaluated or quantified by measuring serum or plasma IgG or serum total protein within the first 7 d of age. While these measurements inform about circulating concentrations of this important protein, they are also a proxy for evaluating all of the additional benefits of colostral ingestion. The current individual calf standard for categorizing dairy calves with successful passive transfer or failure of passive transfer of immunity are based on serum IgG concentrations of ≥10 and <10 g/L, respectively. This cutoff was based on higher mortality rates in calves with serum IgG <10 g/L. Mortality rates have decreased since 1991, but the percentage of calves with morbidity events has not changed over the same time period. Almost 90% of calves sampled in the USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2014 study had successful passive immunity based on the dichotomous standard. Based on these observations, a group of calf experts were assembled to evaluate current data and determine if changes to the passive immunity stan-dards were necessary to reduce morbidity and possibly mortality. In addition to the USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2014 study, other peer-reviewed publications and personal experience were used to identify and evaluate potential standards. Four options were evaluated based on the observed statistical differences between categories. The proposed standard includes 4 serum IgG categories: excellent, good, fair, and poor with serum IgG levels of ≥25.0, 18.0-24.9, 10.0-17.9, and <10 g/L, respectively. At the herd level, we propose an achievable standard of >40, 30, 20, and <10% of calves in the excellent, good, fair, and poor categories, respectively. Because serum IgG concentrations are not practical for on-farm implementation, we provide corresponding serum total protein and %Brix values for use on farm. With one-third of heifer calves in 2014 already meeting the goal of ≥25 g/L serum IgG at 24 h of life, this achievable standard will require more refinement of colostrum management programs on many dairy farms. Implementation of the proposed standard should further reduce the risk of both mortality and morbidity in preweaned dairy calves, improving overall calf health and welfare.

Passive transfer of immunity is essential for the short- and long-term health of dairy calves. The objective of this study was to evaluate factors associated with colostrum quality and passive transfer status of US heifer calves. This study included 104 operations in 13 states that participated in the calf component of the National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2014 study. This 18-mo longitudinal study included 1,972 Holstein heifer calves from birth to weaning. Multivariable mixed linear regression models were selected using backward elimination model selection after univariate screening to determine which factors were associated with colostrum IgG and serum IgG concentrations. The mean colostrum IgG concentration was 74.4 g/L with 77.4% of colostrum samples having IgG concentrations >50 g/L. The final model for colostrum IgG included colostrum source and a categorized temperature-humidity index value (cTHI) for the month before calving. Mean colostrum IgG concentrations were highest for dams in third and higher lactations (84.7 g/L) and lowest for commercial colostrum replacers (40.3 g/L). Colostrum IgG concentrations were highest for cTHI ≥70 (72.6 g/L) and lowest for cTHI <40 (64.2 g/L). The mean serum IgG concentration was 21.6 g/L, with 73.3% of calves having serum IgG concentrations >15 g/L. The final model for serum IgG concentration included region, heat treatment of colostrum, colostrum source, timing to first feeding, volume of colostrum fed in the first 24 h, age of the calf at blood sampling, and colostrum IgG concentration. Mean serum IgG concentrations were highest for calves that received colostrum from first-lactation dams (25.7 g/L) and lowest for calves fed commercial colostrum replacer (16.6 g/L). Serum IgG concentrations were higher for calves fed heat-treated colostrum (24.4 g/L) than for calves fed untreated colostrum (20.5 g/L). Serum IgG concentration was positively associated with the volume of colostrum fed in the first 24 h and colostrum IgG concentration, and negatively associated with the number of hours from birth to colostrum feeding and age (days) at blood collection. Dairy producers should be encouraged to measure the quality of colostrum before administering it to calves and to measure serum IgG or a proxy such as serum total protein or Brix to evaluate passive immunity and colostrum management programs.

The objective of this study was to describe preweaned dairy heifer calf management practices on dairy operations across the United States that were used to analyze factors associated with colostrum quality and passive transfer, Cryptosporidium and Giardia, morbidity and mortality, and average daily gain. This study included 104 dairy operations in 13 states that participated in the National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2014 calf component study. This 18-mo longitudinal study focused on dairy heifer calves from birth to weaning, and data were collected on 2,545 heifer calves. Descriptive statistics were generated regarding colostrum feeding, preweaning housing, milk feeding and consumption, growth, morbidity and mortality, and weaning practices. The majority of calves enrolled were Holsteins (89.4%). Over half the calves (63.2%) enrolled in the study received the majority of their colostrum via bottle; however, 22.1% of calves from 51.0% of operations received colostrum via suckling from their dams. For all calves, the mean time to the first colostrum feeding was 2.8 h, and the average amount of colostrum at the first feeding was 2.9 L, with 4.5 L provided in the first 24 h. The mean serum IgG of all calves was 21.7 g/L; however, 76.0% of operations had at least 1 calf with failure of passive transfer of immunity with a serum IgG below 10 g/L. The majority of calves in the study were housed individually (86.6%). Nonetheless, 20.2% of operations housed some calves in groups, representing 13.4% of all calves. Approximately one-half of the calves in the study (52.3%) were dehorned or disbudded during the preweaning period, with only 27.8% of these calves receiving analgesics or anesthetics during the procedure. Whole or waste milk was the liquid diet type fed to 40.1% of calves, and milk replacer was fed to 34.8% of calves. A combination of milk and milk replacer was fed to 25.1% of calves. Calves, on average, were fed 2.6 L per feeding and fed 2.6 times/d, resulting in a total of 5.6 L of liquid diet fed per day. The mean average daily gain for all calves enrolled in the study was 0.7 kg/d. Fecal samples were collected and almost all operations had at least 1 calf positive for Cryptosporidium (94.2%) or Giardia (99.0%), and 84.6% of operations had calves that tested positive for both Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Over one-third of calves (38.1%) had at least one morbidity event during the preweaning period and the mortality rate was 5.0%. The mean age at weaning was 65.7 d. This study provides an update on dairy heifer raising practices in the United States.

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The study objective was to evaluate average daily gain (ADG) in dairy heifer calves based on health, feeding, management practices, and environmental factors. This study included 102 operations in 13 states that participated in the calf component of the National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2014 study. This 18-mo longitudinal study included 1,410 Holstein heifer calves monitored from birth to weaning. The mean ADG from birth to final weight was 0.74 kg/d. Backward elimination model selection in Proc Mixed after univariate screening determined factors that significantly affected ADG. The final model included dam lactation number, singleton versus twin birth, bedding type, Giardia and Cryptosporidium fecal shedding, disease events, a categorized average temperature-humidity index for the preweaning period (pTHI), amount of protein in the liquid diet (kg/d), milk pasteurization, direct-fed microbials, and the interaction between milk pasteurization and direct-fed microbials. After controlling for other independent variables in the model, calves born to first-lactation dams gained less (0.60 kg/d) than calves from second- (0.65 kg/d) or third- or greater-lactation (0.64 kg/d) dams. Singleton calves gained 0.07 kg/d more than twins. Calves bedded with sand or no bedding gained less (0.49 kg/d) than calves on all other bedding types. Calves negative for Cryptosporidium or Giardia at the time of sampling gained 0.03 or 0.02 kg/d more, respectively, than calves that were positive for Cryptosporidium or Giardia. Calves with no disease events gained 0.07 kg/d more than calves with one or more disease events. Calves experiencing an average pTHI <50 gained more (0.67 kg/d) than calves experiencing an average pTHI from 50 to 69 (0.62 kg/d), or ≥70 (0.59 kg/d). Within the range of observed kilograms of protein fed per day in the liquid diet, every additional 0.1 kg of protein fed per day equated to 0.02 kg/d of gain. Calves fed milk replacer with a direct-fed microbial gained less (0.44 kg/d) than calves fed milk replacer without a direct-fed microbial (0.60 kg/d) and calves fed pasteurized or unpasteurized milk regardless of direct-fed microbial use. These results highlight the importance of feeding a quantity and quality of a liquid diet to achieve optimal growth, keeping calves free of disease, the type or status of bedding, and mitigating the effects of temperature and humidity on preweaning ADG.

Many calves born on dairy farms are male, but little research to date has focused on the management of these calves. The objective of this study was to survey management practices of preweaned dairy bull calves and compare these practices with those used for heifer calves on the same operations. This study was conducted as part of the USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System Dairy 2014 study and included a sample of 42 operations from 10 states. On average, 2.4% of bull calves died before leaving the operation, with most operations selling bull calves before weaning (97.6%). Bull calves left the operation at an average age of 7.6 d (median = 4 d). Producers reported that 96.3% of bull calves received colostrum. Of bulls that were fed colostrum, the vast majority (95.4%) were hand-fed; the remaining calves received colostrum via a combination of hand-feeding and suckling (3.1%) or by suckling only (1.5%). In contrast, all heifer calves on those operations were only hand-fed colostrum. On average, bull calves received 3.1 L of colostrum at their first feeding at 4.3 h after birth compared with 2.9 L at 2.9 h after birth for heifer calves. In the first 24 h, bull and heifer calves received 4.8 and 5.5 L of colostrum, respectively. Only 21.4% of operations dehorned bull calves; in comparison, heifer calves were dehorned on 90.5% of operations. Few operations used analgesics or anesthetics when dehorning bull calves, whereas 28.9% of operations used anesthetics or analgesics when dehorning heifer calves. Overall, 27.8% of operations castrated bull calves. Of the operations that did castrate bulls, 70.0% used a band at an average age of 6.3 wk; the remaining 30% of operations used a knife at 14.7 wk of age on average. Few operations used analgesics or anesthetics when castrating. These results illustrate differences in the care of bull and heifer calves and suggest the need to improve education regarding recommended colostrum feeding and pain management practices in all calves regardless of sex.

The objective of this study was to evaluate management practices and environmental factors associated with cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in preweaned heifer calves on US dairy operations. This study was conducted as part of the calf component of the National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2014 study. The calf component included 104 dairy operations in 13 states and was an 18-mo longitudinal study focused on dairy heifer calves from birth to weaning. Fecal samples were collected from 2,249 calves: 839 calves in the West region (California, Colorado, and Washington) and 1,410 calves in the East region (Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin). Fecal samples were collected only once from calves during the preweaning period. Samples were collected from calves 3 to 66 d of age, with a mean of 22 d. Overall, Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected in 43.1 and 30.5% of fecal samples, respectively. Backward elimination logistic model selection was used after univariate screening to determine which management practices and environmental factors significantly affected the presence of Cryptosporidium or Giardia. The final Cryptosporidium model included herd size, days of age at fecal collection, and average temperature-humidity index for the month of fecal collection (fTHI). Cryptosporidium was found on a higher percentage of large operations (≥500 cows) than small operations (30 to 99 cows). Younger calves were more likely to have a fecal sample positive for Cryptosporidium than samples from older calves. Fecal samples from calves during the warmer parts of the year (fTHI >70) were more likely to be positive for Cryptosporidium than samples collected in colder months (fTHI <20). The final Giardia model included herd size, days of age at fecal collection, average fTHI, failure of passive transfer status, and average daily gain (kg/d) during the preweaning period. Giardia was isolated more frequently from calves on small operations than on large operations and from calves that were older compared with younger calves. Giardia was more frequently isolated in warmer months. Samples from calves with failure of passive transfer were more likely to have Giardia than calves with adequate passive transfer (>10 g/L IgG). Average daily gain during the preweaning period was lower in calves from which Giardia was isolated. These results highlight the factors associated with the presence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in preweaned dairy heifer calves.