Review of CMOS image sensors

Bigas, Montserrat; Cabruja, E.; Salví, Joaquím

doi:10.1016/j.mejo.2005.07.002

Cited by 486 publications

(248 citation statements)

References 123 publications

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“…By contrast, CMOS Active Pixel Sensors (APSs) (Fossum 1995, Bigas et al 2006, Holst and Lomheim 2011 have started to emerge as a serious alternative to FPIs in the medical imaging field, showing potential to overcome many of the limiting drawbacks of FPIs. In fact CMOS APSs are now capable of offering low noise (60−150 e − ) (Arvanitis et al 2007, Bohndiek et al 2009, Esposito et al 2011, as each pixel contains an active circuit (Zentai and Colbeth 2012), and a pixel pitch in the order of 25 − 50 µm, deriving from higher resolution lithographic processes and higher levels of integration reached in the CMOS manufacturing processing, technically and economically driven by integrated circuit applications (Lo 1998).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Performance of a novel wafer scale CMOS active pixel sensor for bio-medical imaging

Esposito

Anaxagoras²,

Konstantinidis

et al. 2014

Phys. Med. Biol.

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Abstract:Recently CMOS Active Pixels Sensors (APSs) have become a valuable alternative to amorphous Silicon and Selenium Flat Panel Imagers (FPIs) in bio-medical imaging applications. CMOS APSs can now be scaled up to the standard 20 cm diameter wafer size by means of a reticle stitching block process. However despite wafer scale CMOS APS being monolithic, sources of non-uniformity of response and regional variations can persist representing a significant challenge for wafer scale sensor response. Nonuniformity of stitched sensors can arise from a number of factors related to the manufacturing process, including variation of amplification, variation between readout components, wafer defects and process variations across the wafer due to manufacturing processes. This paper reports on an investigation into the spatial non-uniformity and regional variations of a wafer scale stitched CMOS APS. For the first time a per-pixel analysis of the electro-optical performance of a wafer CMOS APS is presented, to address inhomogeneity issues arising from the stitching techniques used to manufacture wafer scale sensors. A complete model of the signal generation in the pixel array has been provided and proved capable of accounting for noise and gain variations across the pixel array. This novel analysis leads to readout noise and conversion gain being evaluated at pixel level, stitching block level and in regions of interest, resulting in a coefficient of variation ≤ 1.9%. The uniformity of the image quality performance has been further investigated in a typical X-ray application, i.e. mammography, showing a uniformity in terms of CNR among the highest when compared with mammography detectors commonly used in clinical practise. Finally, in order to compare the CONFIDENTIAL -FOR REVIEW ONLY PMB-100279.R1detection capability of this novel APS with the currently used technology (i.e. FPIs), theoretical evaluation of the Detection Quantum Efficiency (DQE) at zero-frequency has been performed, resulting in a higher DQE for this detector compared to FPIs. Optical characterization, X-ray contrast measurements and theoretical DQE evaluation suggest that a trade off can be found between the need of a large imaging area and the requirement of a uniform imaging performance, making the DynAMITe large area CMOS APS suitable for a range of bio-medical applications. in bio-medical imaging applications. CMOS APSs can now be scaled up to the standard 20 cm diameter wafer size by means of a reticle stitching block process. However despite wafer scale CMOS APS being monolithic, sources of non-uniformity of response and regional variations can persist representing a significant challenge for wafer scale sensor response. Non-uniformity of stitched sensors can arise from a number of factors related to the manufacturing process, including variation of amplification, variation between readout components, wafer defects and process variations across the wafer due to manufacturing processes. This paper reports on an investigation into the spatial non-uni...

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Performance of a novel wafer scale CMOS active pixel sensor for bio-medical imaging

Esposito

Anaxagoras²,

Konstantinidis

et al. 2014

Phys. Med. Biol.

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“…This limit defines the maximal frame rate of the detector (Bigas et al 2006). In benchtop systems, the exposure times necessitated by the comparatively weak flux (generally > > 50 ms) mean this limit is not exceeded.…”

Section: Future Challenges and Opportunitiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Challenges in imaging and predictive modeling of rhizosphere processes

et al. 2016

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Background Plant-soil interaction is central to human food production and ecosystem function. Thus, it is essential to not only understand, but also to develop predictive mathematical models which can be used to assess how climate and soil management practices will affect these interactions. Scope In this paper we review the current developments in structural and chemical imaging of rhizosphere processes within the context of multiscale mathematical image based modeling. We outline areas that need more research and areas which would benefit from more detailed understanding. Conclusions We conclude that the combination of structural and chemical imaging with modeling is an incredibly powerful tool which is fundamental for understanding how plant roots interact with soil. We emphasize the need for more researchers to be attracted to this area that is so fertile for future discoveries. Finally, model building must go hand in hand with experiments. In particular, there is a real need to integrate rhizosphere structural and chemical imaging with modeling for better understanding of the rhizosphere processes leading to models which explicitly account for pore scale processes.

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“…This is why noise contributors should be dealt with by reducing their impact on the useful signals. CMOS imagers are known to suffer from various noise sources which can be classified either as temporal noise or FPN [31]. Temporal noise (e.g.…”

Section: Noise Removalmentioning

confidence: 99%

Empowering Low-Cost CMOS Cameras by Image Processing to Reach Comparable Results with Costly CCDs

et al. 2013

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Despite the hugeresearch effort to improve the performanceoftheComplementaryMetalOxideSemiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) still dominate the cell biology related conventional fluorescence microscopic imaging market where low or ultra-low noise imaging is required. A detailed comparison of the sensor specifications and performance is usually not provided by the manufacturers which leads the end users not to go out of the habitude and choose a CCD camera instead of a CMOS one. However, depending on the application, CMOS cameras, when empowered by image processing algorithms can become cost-efficient solutions for conventional fluorescence microscopy. In this paper, we introduce an application-based comparative study between the default CCD camera of an inverted microscope (Nikon Ti-S Eclipse) and a custom-designed CMOS camera and apply efficient image processing algorithms to improve the performance of CMOS cameras. Quantum micro-bead samples that emit fluorescence light at different intensity levels, breast cancer diagnostic tissue cell and Caco-2 cell samples are imaged by both CMOS and CCD cameras and results are provided to show the reliability of CMOS camera processed images and finally to be of assistance when scientists select their cameras for desired applications.

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Review of CMOS image sensors

Cited by 486 publications

References 123 publications

Performance of a novel wafer scale CMOS active pixel sensor for bio-medical imaging

Performance of a novel wafer scale CMOS active pixel sensor for bio-medical imaging

Challenges in imaging and predictive modeling of rhizosphere processes

Empowering Low-Cost CMOS Cameras by Image Processing to Reach Comparable Results with Costly CCDs

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