Reducing Lead Exposure from Drinking Water: Recent History and Current Status

Maas, Richard P.; Patch, Steven C.; Morgan, Diane M.; Pandolfo, Tamara J.

doi:10.1177/003335490512000317

Cited by 47 publications

(31 citation statements)

References 12 publications

(14 reference statements)

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“…In New York City as of 2003 approximately 15% of all residences are estimated to have firstdraw tap water lead levels exceeding 10 mg/l. This estimation is based on a free testing programme offered by the city of New York to residents since early 1995 (Maas et al 2005).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Assessment and management of tap water lead contamination in Lower Saxony, Germany

Zietz¹,

Lass²,

Suchenwirth³

2007

International Journal of Environmental Health Research

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Lead is known to have numerous adverse effects especially to infants and children. The intake of lead through drinking water is commonly due to metal corrosion in the peripheral water distribution system, especially the user's plumbing. The aim of this project was to assess the present state of drinking water contamination with lead in Lower Saxony and to promote replacement of lead pipes. For this purpose a project was initiated comprising three parts. First, a free examination of drinking water was offered in cooperation with local public health departments for private households with young women and families with children living in buildings constructed before 1974. Participants were asked to collect a cold tap water sample in their household after nocturnal stagnation and to complete a questionnaire. The collected samples were analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry for their lead concentration. Second, data from local public health departments on results of lead measurements, especially in buildings for the public, were collected and analysed. Finally a working group 'lead replacement' was initiated. In the project in total 2436 tap water samples from households were collected. Of these, 6.49% had lead concentrations exceeding 10 microg/l (recommended limit of the World Health Organization) and 2.79% had concentrations above the limit of the German drinking water ordinance (25 microg/l). There were remarkable regional differences in the frequency of tap water contamination. Multi-family houses were more frequently affected than single- and double-family houses.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Assessment and management of tap water lead contamination in Lower Saxony, Germany

Zietz¹,

Lass²,

Suchenwirth³

2007

International Journal of Environmental Health Research

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“…The main source of PO 4 3− into western LIS is sewage discharge through the East River, which is largely derived from human waste (Sweeney & Sañudo-Wilhelmy 2004). Since 1992, NYC has been adding ortho-phosphoric acid to municipal drinking water to inhibit leaching of lead from old plumbing (Maas et al 2005), which likely contributed to increased DIP loadings into western LIS. Furthermore, some rivers throughout the northeastern US have also recently experienced rising P loadings, suggesting that LIS is being influenced by freshwater discharges (Trench et al 2012).…”

Section: Trends In Lis Over 15 Yrmentioning

confidence: 99%

Phytoplankton assemblage changes during decadal decreases in nitrogen loadings to the urbanized Long Island Sound estuary, USA

Suter¹,

Lwiza²,

Rose³

et al. 2014

Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.

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Despite reductions in nitrogen loadings from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) discharging into Long Island Sound (LIS) over the last 15 yr, eutrophication and hypoxia remain a severe problem. Here we used time series of hydrography, meteorology, nutrients, and phytoplankton pigments to explore the relationships between planktonic biomass, nutrient stocks, and physical regimes in LIS. With the exception of the most eutrophied station in the west, dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) decreased between 1995 and 2009, likely resulting from WWTP upgrades. However, total dissolved nitrogen increased during this period, primarily driven by rising organic nitrogen pools. Simultaneous increases in inorganic phosphorus, silicate, and chlorophyll a (chl a) were also observed. Starting in 2002, pigment-based phytoplankton community composition revealed systematic declines in diatom abundances coincident with increases in dinoflagellates and other flagellated phytoplankton groups. Despite this, bottom water dissolved oxygen concentrations did not improve. The apparent paradox between increasing DIN limitation and escalating chl a concentrations in LIS suggests a shifting nutrient stoichiometry and an altered phytoplankton community in which phytoflagellates have increased in abundance relative to diatoms. Despite these changes, diatoms remained the most abundant algal group by the end of the study. In addition, a shift in chl a stocks in the year 2000 coincided with decreases in temperature, increases in salinity, and the proliferation of several algal groups. These results reveal the complex nature of eutrophied estuaries and indicate that policies targeting only inorganic nitrogen loadings may be insufficient to mitigate eutrophication in systems such as LIS.

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“…Most childhood lead uptake in the United States results from exposure to deteriorating lead paint in household dust and soil and to lead in soil from historic deposition from mobile sources (Davidson and Rabinowitz 1991; Mielke and Reagan 1998), although drinking water can be a source of chronic exposure (Maas et al 2005a; Raab et al 1987; Sherlock et al 1984; Thomas et al 1979). Although drinking water is not the primary route of exposure for most children, the U.S.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The location of potential lead sources (pipes vs. fixtures or solder) and timing of sample collection, as well as small changes in water chemistry, can drastically affect observed/measured water lead levels (Edwards and Dudi 2004; Renner 2006; Schock 1990). As a result, routine monitoring in water systems in Washington, DC, and North Carolina failed to detect increased levels of lead directly after changing disinfectants from chlorines to chloramines (Edwards and Dudi 2004; Maas et al 2005a; Renner 2004, 2005). In Washington, DC, the increase was not detected and reported until almost a year after the change in the disinfection process had occurred because elevated samples were invalidated in 2001.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Changes in Blood Lead Levels Associated with Use of Chloramines in Water Treatment Systems

Miranda

Kim

Hull

et al. 2007

Environ Health Perspect

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BackgroundMore municipal water treatment plants are using chloramines as a disinfectant in order to reduce carcinogenic by-products. In some instances, this has coincided with an increase in lead levels in drinking water in those systems. Lead in drinking water can be a significant health risk.ObjectivesWe sought to test the potential effect of switching to chloramines for disinfection in water treatment systems on childhood blood lead levels using data from Wayne County, located in the central Coastal Plain of North Carolina.MethodsWe constructed a unified geographic information system (GIS) that links blood lead screening data with age of housing, drinking water source, and census data for 7,270 records. The data were analyzed using both exploratory methods and more formal multivariate techniques.ResultsThe analysis indicates that the change to chloramine disinfection may lead to an increase in blood lead levels, the impact of which is progressively mitigated in newer housing.ConclusionsIntroducing chloramines to reduce carcinogenic by-products may increase exposure to lead in drinking water. Our research provides guidance on adjustments in the local childhood lead poisoning prevention program that should accompany changes in water treatment. As similar research is conducted in other areas, and the underlying environmental chemistry is clarified, water treatment strategies can be optimized across the multiple objectives that municipalities face in providing high quality drinking water to local residents.

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Reducing Lead Exposure from Drinking Water: Recent History and Current Status

Cited by 47 publications

References 12 publications

Assessment and management of tap water lead contamination in Lower Saxony, Germany

Assessment and management of tap water lead contamination in Lower Saxony, Germany

Phytoplankton assemblage changes during decadal decreases in nitrogen loadings to the urbanized Long Island Sound estuary, USA

Changes in Blood Lead Levels Associated with Use of Chloramines in Water Treatment Systems

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