Psychology Reconstructs The Female: 1968–1988

Abstract

Recent work on the psychology of gender is pluralistic, stemming from varied specialty areas within psychology, grounded in several intellectual frameworks, and reflecting a spectrum of feminist perspectives. This article is a critical appraisal of diverse approaches to the study of women and gender. it first describes prefeminist or "womanless" psychology, then analyzes four coexisting frameworks that have generated recent research. The four frameworks are: Exceptional Women, in which empirical research focuses on the correlates of high achievement for women, and women's history in the discipline i s reevaluated; Women as Problem (or Anomaly), in which research emphasizes explanations for female "deficiencies" (e.g., fear of success); the Psychology of Gender, in which the focus of inquiry shifts from women to gender, conceived as a principle of social organization that structures relations between women and men; and a (currently relatively undeveloped) Transformation framework that reflexively challenges the values, assumptions, and normative practices of the discipline. Examples of research programs within each a p proach are described, and the strengths and limitations of each approach are critically examined.

Does Gender Matter? Women Business Angels and the Supply of Entrepreneurial Finance

“…The conclusion of this research, and the starting point for further research on the role of gender relations in the angel investment process, is that gender is enacted not a collection of traits we express. Accordingly, as earlier research in psychology has demonstrated (Connell, 1985(Connell, , 1987Crawford & Maracek, 1989), gender is a "pattern of social organization that structures the relations, especially the power relations, between women and men" (Riger, 1992, p. 737). The challenge for entrepreneurship research will be to move from the conflation of sex and gender as a set of traits to be compared with the malestream (Delamont, 2003;Rees, 1998) to a perspective that bridges conceptions of agency and context in a more integrated discourse on the evolution of social orders.…”

Androcentric Reporting of Gender Differences in APA Journals: 1965–2004

“…First, qualitative reviews have suggested that feminist research in psychology has tended to undo negative evaluations of women in traditional theories more often than undo the position of males as the standard of comparison within those theories (e.g., Crawford and Marecek, 1989;Mednick, 1989;Walsh, 1989). Second, the move to forbid the use of the generic 'he' met with considerable resistance (see Martyna, 1980 for a review and Hofstadter, 1985 for a satirical view of this debate).…”

Competences of gender equality: Training for equality between women and men in organizations

“…En el Nivel sociocultural o socioestructural, el género funciona como agente, como un sistema de organización social que gobierna el acceso al poder y a los recursos (Crawford & Chaffin, 1997;Crawford et al, 1995;Crawford & Marecek, 1989;Crawford & Unger, 1994;Sherif, 1982). Es, por tanto, un sistema que otorga mayor poder y privilegios a los hombres, legitima las posturas patriarcales y mantiene las estructuras sociales.…”

“…El Nivel interaccional o relacional, se visibiliza a través de las diferencias desde las que hombres y mujeres actúan y son tratados en las interacciones cotidianas. El Nivel Individual o Personal se muestra a través de la autorrepresentación femenina o masculina (Crawford, 1995;Crawford & Chaffin, 1997;Crawford, Chaffin & Fitton, 1995;Crawford & Marecek, 1989;Crawford & Unger, 1994;Sherif, 1982).…”