Prevalence of new psychoactive substances and prescription drugs in the Belgian driving under the influence of drugs population

Abstract

Driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) is a worldwide problem. Several countries have adopted DUID legislations which prove their deterrent effect and impact on road safety. However, the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and prescription drugs is not known, as the applied roadside screening tests have not yet been adapted for these compounds. In this study, 558 blood samples obtained during roadside controls in Belgium (January to August 2015) after a positive Drugwipe 5S® test and 199 oral fluid (OF) samples obtained from negatively screened test pads were analyzed. The NPS positivity rate was 7% in blood, while it reached 11% in OF. NPS detected were: diphenidine, ketamine, 4-fluoroamphetamine, 2-amino-indane, methoxetamine, α-PVP, methiopropamine, a mix of 5-MAPB/5-EAPB, TH-PVP, mephedrone, methedrone, 4-methylethylcathinone, 5-MeO-DALT, 4-Acetoxy-DiPT, AB Fubinaca, FUB-JWH018, JWH020, trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine, and ethylphenidate. Moreover, 17% of blood samples (and 5% of OF) contained an analgesic drug, 10% (0.5%) a benzodiazepine/hypnotic, 5% (2%) an antidepressant, 2% (3%) an antipsychotic, 2% an antiepileptic drug, and 1% methylphenidate. The presence of NPS in the young (and predominately male) DUID population is proven. Furthermore, a high level of poly-drug use including combinations of NPS, licit, and drugs of abuse was observed. Further research concerning the development of on-site NPS detection techniques should be established. Meanwhile, the effects of combined drug use on driving ability and the physical/psychological signs after NPS use should be performed to improve the on-site DUID detection of NPS by police officers, so they can engage in blood sampling for a general unknown screening.

Retrospective analysis of new psychoactive substances in blood samples of German drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs

“…Poly-drug abuse was also observed in many other retrospective studies. [17][18][19]21,22 In accordance with Tuv et al 18 and Wille et al 21 In contrast to previous studies determining the prevalence of NPS in DUID cases ( Another potential influence on the study's prevalence is the possible instability of NPS, particularly synthetic cathinones, in blood. [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] To reduce drug loss, many authors investigating the stability of NPS in blood recommended −20 C to be the best storage condition.…”

“…17 Comparatively higher prevalence rates for stimulant designer drugs (21-28%) and synthetic cannabinoids (15-19%) were found in Hungary. 20 Recently, Wille et al 21 In our study, designer stimulants were found in two cases.…”

“…Previous prevalence studies, in contrast, showed higher prevalence rates ranging from 2.2 to 28%. [17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] However, the prevalence of synthetic cannabinoids determined in Bavaria (2.1%) was similar to or slightly lower than those in Norway (2.2%) 18 and the German federal state Hesse (2.8%). 17 Comparatively higher prevalence rates for stimulant designer drugs (21-28%) and synthetic cannabinoids (15-19%) were found in Hungary.…”

“…17,18 Later studies, in turn, detected recent synthetic cannabinoids such as AB-CHMINACA, MDMB-CHMICA, and AB-FUBINACA. 20,21 These fluctuations can be explained by the fast pace of the NPS market and the different geographic distribution of these substances which is often influenced by national (NPS) laws and their changes.…”

Fatality involving ocfentanil documented by identification of metabolites

“…Screening for OcF metabolites was performed using a previously reported LC-HRMS method. 20,[25][26][27]32 LC-HRMS settings…”