Pregnancy-related changes in human whole saliva

Oral colonization of Gram-negative anaerobes as a risk factor for preterm delivery

“…46 In addition, plaque accumulation may be facilitated by the increased production of gingival crevicular fluid which contains growth-promoting factors for a wide range of bacteria including Gram-negative anaerobes such as P. gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia and Fusobacterium nucleatum, among the bacteria known to be increased in pregnant women and women taking oral contraceptives. [47][48][49][50] Hormonal and vascular changes associated with pregnancy may exacerbate the gingival response to bacterial plaque, resulting in an inflammatory periodontal disease. Pregnancy gingivitis is the most common oral manifestation of pregnancy and comes about as a result of the hormones estrogen and progesterone, and not necessarily because of an increase in plaque bacteria.…”

“…56,59,60 This, along with estrogen-enhanced proliferation and desquamation of the oral mucosa and nutrients provided by the bleeding gingiva creates a suitable environment for an overgrowth of Gram-negative anaerobes in the plaque. [47][48][49][50]61,62 Association of periodontal disease with PTB. Among the first studies to associate a periodontopathogen with pregnancy outcomes was the study by Collins and colleagues, 63 who injected pregnant hamsters with Porphyromonas gingivalis (an oral anaerobe commonly associated with periodontal disease), and proved that oral bacteria and the inflammatory mediators produced in response to the antigens they present, could disseminate via the bloodstream to the maternal-fetal interface and induce adverse pregnancy outcomes.…”

Comparative Evaluation of the Effect of Menstruation, Pregnancy and Menopause on Salivary Flow Rate, pH and Gustatory Function

“…Previous studies on the topic of the effect of menopause and pregnancy on salivary flow rate have revealed diverse results. Some studies have reported no change in salivary flow rate after menopause [13,14], while other studies have shown lower flow rates in pregnant and postmenopausal women [2,3,15]. It has also been suggested that ageing may lead to a decrease in salivary flow rate as a consequence of parenchymal atropHy [16].…”

The biochemistry of saliva throughout pregnancy

“…14,15,21,23,34,35 Regarding salivary flow rate, most studies, including ours, reported no changes between pregnant and nonpregnant women; 6,13,19,20 however, Naveen et al 12 showed higher rates for either stimulated or non-stimulated saliva. In addition, reports regarding salivary flow rate throughout pregnancy are controversial, 34,35 suggesting that many factors may regulate this flow during pregnancy.…”