A healthy vaginal microbiota is considered to be significant for maintaining vaginal health and preventing infections. However, certain vaginal bacterial commensal species serve an important first line of defense of the body. Any disruption of this microbial barrier might result in a number of urogenital conditions including aerobic vaginitis (AV) and bacterial vaginosis (BV). The health of the vagina is closely associated with inhabitant microbiota. Furthermore, these microbes maintain a low vaginal pH, prevent the acquisition of pathogens, stimulate or moderate the local innate immune system, and further protect against complications during pregnancies. Therefore, this review will focus on vaginal microbial “health” in the lower reproductive tract of women and on the physiological characteristics that determine the well-being of reproductive health. In addition, we explore the distinct versus shared characteristics of BV and AV, which are commonly associated with increased risk for preterm delivery.

The aetiology and pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis (BV) is unclear but it appears to be associated with factors that disrupt the normal acidity of the vagina thus altering the equilibrium between the normal vaginal microbiota. BV has serious implications for female morbidity, including reports of pelvic inflammatory disease, adverse pregnancy outcomes, increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections and infertility. This paper reviewed new available information regarding possible factors contributing to the establishment of the BV vaginal biofilm, examined the proposed role of anaerobic microbial species recently detected by new culture-independent methods and discusses developments related to the effects of BV on human pregnancy. The literature search included Pubmed (NLM), LISTA (EBSCO), and Web of Science. Because of the complexity and diversity of population groups, diagnosis and methodology used, no meta-analysis was performed. Several anaerobic microbial species previously missed in the laboratory diagnosis of BV have been revealed while taking cognisance of newly proposed theories of infection, thereby improving our understanding and knowledge of the complex aetiology and pathogenesis of BV and its perceived role in adverse pregnancy outcomes.

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Aerobic vaginitis (AV) is an endogenous opportunistic infection brought about by the disruption of the normal vaginal microbiota. Its early diagnosis and treatment during pregnancy may reduce the risk of negative pregnancy outcomes. The aim of this review was to report on the aerobic bacteria most prevalent in AV and to provide evidence of the threat of untreated AV on pregnancy outcomes. More than 300 papers on preterm delivery were extracted from several research domains and filtered to include only AV-associated bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli and Group B streptococci and their association with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Due to the diverse sample groups, study techniques and outcomes, a meta-analysis was not conducted. The review revealed that the association of AV with adverse pregnancy outcomes has not been as widely researched as bacterial vaginosis (BV) and needs further investigation. Furthermore, the frequent misdiagnosis of AV coupled with the emerging antimicrobial resistance associated with bacteria implicated in AV and neonatal nosocomial infections pose a problem for prophylaxis and treatment to reduce the risk of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. (Afr J Reprod Health 2017; 21[2]: 109-118). Keywords: Aerobic vaginitis; pregnancy risks; antimicrobial resistance RésuméLa vaginite aérobie (VA) est une infection opportuniste endogène provoquée par la perturbation du microbiota vaginal normal. Son diagnostic précoce et son traitement pendant la grossesse peuvent réduire le risque de résultats négatifs de grossesse. L'objectif de cette revue était de faire un rapport sur les bactéries aérobies les plus répandues en VA et de prouver la menace de la VA non traitée sur les résultats de la grossesse. Plus de 300 articles sur l'accouchement prématuré ont été tirés de plusieurs domaines de recherche et filtrés pour inclure uniquement des bactéries associées à la VA telles que Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli et streptocoques du groupe B et leur association avec des résultats de grossesse indésirables. En raison des divers groupes d'échantillons, des techniques d'étude et des résultats, une méta-analyse n'a pas été menée. L'examen a révélé que l'association de la VA avec les résultats de grossesse défavorisés n'a pas été aussi largement étudiée que la vaginose bactérienne (VB) et doit faire l'objet d'une enquête plus approfondie. En outre, le diagnostic erroné de la VA y compris la résistance antimicrobienne émergente associée à une bactérie impliquée dans les infections à vent et nonnéomatologiques constitue un problème pour la prophylaxie et le traitement afin de réduire le risque de morbidité et de mortalité maternelle et néonatale. (Afr J Reprod Health 2017; 21[2]: 109-118).

BackgroundThe immunosuppresion in HIV patients makes them highly susceptible to microbial infections. The aim of the study was to establish whether HIV stage (as depicted by CD4+ T lymphocyte counts) could independently be associated with periodontal status (as revealed by the measurement of clinical indices).MethodsOne hundred and twenty HIV-infected patients attending an infectious diseases clinic in the Western Cape, South Africa were included in the study. The periodontal clinical indices such as plaque index, gingival index, pocket probing depth and clinical attachment levels were measured on the mesial aspect of the six Ramfjord teeth. The CD4 + T cell counts were taken from the patients’ medical records and patients’ HIV stage determined and grouped according to their CD4+ T cell counts into A (<200 cells /mm3), B (200–500 cells /mm3) and C (>500 cells /mm3).ResultsThe mean age of 120 HIV-positive patients was 33.25 years and the mean CD4 + T cell count was 293.43 cells/mm3. The probing depth and clinical attachment loss were found to be significantly associated with the total CD4 + T cell counts but not with HIV stage. Significant correlations were found between age and all clinical indices except for clinical attachment loss. No correlation was found between age and HIV stage of the patients. The use of antiretroviral therapy was significantly associated with probing depth and clinical attachment loss, but not with plaque nor gingival index. Significant associations were observed between smoking and all of the clinical indices except for the gingival index. A significant association was observed between the use of interdental aids and all the clinical indices except for probing depth, while brushing was significantly associated with plaque index only. CD4 + T cell counts were significantly associated with brushing frequency (p = 0.0190) and the use of interdental aids (p = 0.0170).ConclusionThe findings of this study conclude that HIV stage, ART and age are not independent risk factors for changes in the periodontal status of HIV-positive subjects but rather that smoking and oral hygiene habits determine their susceptibility to disease.

The prevalence of SGD and the presence of fibrosis and collagen I in Cameroonians with HIV is significantly higher than in HIV-positive American patients, and is similar to US patients with primary SS. The impact of patient selection, anti-retroviral therapy, and pathogenic mechanisms on salivary gland pathology is discussed.

This study provides further evidence that periodontal disease is a risk indicator for adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Differential darkfield microscopic examination of subgingival plaque samples from a community, which on clinical evidence had a contained gingivitis (mean probing depth 3.1 mm), revealed 35.7% spirochaetes and 7.4% motile rods. In spite of persistent plaque deposits and a high proportion of spirochaetes, this isolated population in Namaqualand, South Africa, appears to be resistant to periodontitis.