Critical Reflection as Doctoral EducationStephen D. BrookfieldIn my own career, I have been involved as a member of teams designing two doctoral programs from scratch. One was in adult education at National Louis University (Chicago); the other was in critical pedagogy at the University of St. Thomas. Two organizing ideas were central to each program. First, the designing team believed that this was an opportunity to try and work as democratically as was possible in a hierarchical institution. Second, each team believed that an important purpose of doctoral education should be to encourage the development of critically reflective practitioners. This would mean that processes of critical reflection would need to be both modeled and taught in the program.The idea of being critically reflective is acceptable to a wide range of people who think of it as broadly equivalent to being thoughtful about your choices, decisions, and actions as practitioners. Conceptualized this way, it is relatively unthreatening. Maybe concerns will be raised that this is something of a luxury in a world where time is a scarce resource, but few would argue with the idea that we should be more thoughtful about our judgments. This is because most people draw on the traditions of pragmatism and analytic philosophy when they use the term critical reflection. These traditions emphasize being open to new ways of thinking about practice, being willing to experiment, watching out for errors in reasoning, and building accurate inferential ladders.However, locate critical reflection within the tradition of critical theory and it becomes institutionally more threatening. Informed by critical theory, critical reflection is the attempt to understand how organizational and community power dynamics work, and to exercise one' s own power responsibly. It involves becoming aware of how dominant ideologies frame one' s thinking and actions, how hegemony manifests itself in our lives, and how to create greater participatory democracy in classrooms, organizations, and NEW DIRECTIONS FOR ADULT AND CONTINUING EDUCATION, no. 147, Fall 2015