Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) as Emerging Environmental Pollutants: Advances in Sample Preparation and Detection Techniques

Abstract

Environmental pollution has been a challenging phenomenon in most developing countries, due to the weak enforcement of environmental regulations. As a result, humans and animals are exposed to different environmental pollutants, which threaten their very existence. Some of the emerging pollutants of great concern are polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) since they are categorized as probable human carcinogens and are also known to bioaccumulate in fatty tissues of animals and humans, reaching toxic levels upon continued exposure. Monitoring of these pollutants is therefore paramount as it contributes to addressing the problem of human exposure and environmental pollution. Their monitoring involves sample preparation methods followed by quantification with various detection techniques. Sample preparation methods that aim at reducing matrix interferences, enriching analytes and transfer of analytes to a desirable solvent, have evolved from conventional methods to advanced methods that facilitate the detection of these chemicals at very low concentrations. Likewise, detection techniques have advanced from chromatographic detection techniques to miniaturized systems that involve sensors. This chapter discusses PBDEs as emerging pollutants, their sources, and toxicological implications on humans, as well as advances in sample preparation methods and detection techniques in the determination of PBDEs.

Effects of UV radiation on natural and synthetic materials

“…Another class of additives being phased out because of their activity as endocrine disruptors and toxicity are flame retardants based on polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) used at 10-20 wt% in some plastic compounds [61][62][63]. As with plasticisers, the phase-out of PBDEs does not significantly reduce the levels of these compounds in the environment in the medium term, because of persisting residue from their early use since 2004 [64].…”

“…As with plasticisers, the phase-out of PBDEs does not significantly reduce the levels of these compounds in the environment in the medium term, because of persisting residue from their early use since 2004 [ 64 ]. PBDE levels in human serum and breast milk are up to 160.3 ng/g [ 61 ]. The levels reported in e-waste workers in China are over twice that [ 65 ].…”

Development of a Solid-Phase Extraction Method Based on Biocompatible Starch Polyurethane Polymers for GC-MS Analysis of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Ambient Water Samples

“…In view of the foregoing, many classes of materials such as modified silica [ 12 ], bamboo charcoal [ 13 ], multi-walled carbon nanotubes [ 14 ], single-walled carbon nanotubes [ 10 , 15 ], β-cyclodextrin copolymers [ 5 ], hydrophilic hyper-cross-linked polymeric materials [ 16 ], metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) [ 7 ], and various kinds of molecularly-imprinted polymers [ 17 ], have been applied as sorbent phases for PBDEs with varying degrees of efficiency. However, the widespread application of most of the reported SPE sorbents suffered from one or more limitations in cost, extraction efficiency, analyte selectivity, narrow extraction spectrum, and non-renewable source [ 18 ]. Therefore, there is an obvious need for the development of improved SPE sorbents for PBDEs.…”