Palestinian Adolescents’ Prolonged Exposure to Political Violence, Self- Esteem, and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms

Abstract

The goal of this study was to understand the relation between adolescents' long-term exposure to political violence (EPV) and post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). We examined the relations among EPV, PTSS, and self-esteem to determine whether self-esteem could buffer the effects of EPV on PTSS. A systematic cluster random sample of 2,934 Palestinian adolescent boys and girls in the West Bank area of the Palestinian Authority and in East Jerusalem participated in a study using a self-administered questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis showed that the more Palestinian youth were exposed to political violence during the last year and during previous years, the more they exhibited PTSS and its three manifestations, that is, avoidance, intrusion, and arousal. In addition, EPV showed effects on PTSS after controlling for sociodemographic variables and self-esteem. Girls and residents of the West Bank reported more PTSS than boys and residents of East Jerusalem, respectively. Higher levels of EPV correlated with lower levels of self-esteem, and children with relatively low self-esteem were likely to report more PTSS than children with high self-esteem. Hence, the correlations between participants' EPV and some of the PTSS were found to be partially dependent on the levels of their self-esteem, indicating moderating and mediating effects for self-esteem on the relation between degree of EPV and PTSS. The limitations of the study and implications for future research are discussed.

Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among Palestinian children and adolescents exposed to political violence: A systematic review and meta-analysis

“…Long-term exposure to political violence (EPV), such as the case of Israeli-Palestinian conflict, has led to profound physical and psychological distress to civilians [ 1 ], and results in the disruption of their social and economic structures [ 2 ]. Together and separately, these circumstances harm the mental health and development of children and youth [ 3 ].…”

“…The pervasive and long-standing Palestinian-Israeli conflict has exposed children and adolescents on both sides to PV [ 2 ]. The occupied Palestinian territories (oPt) (West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip) were occupied by Israel in 1967, and has been the place of periods of significance escalations in violence since, including two major Palestinian uprisings (also called Intifadas ) against the occupation, first from 1987 to 1993 and then from 2000 to 2005.…”

Children’s Conceptualizations of Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Peacebuilding in the Context of Armed Conflict

“…Past research and interventions in the context of armed conflict with child victims have reported that programs which focus on the promotion and generation of hopeful scenarios that promote mental health, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and active participation help to overcome the horrors of confrontation (Barry et al, 2013;Haj-Yahia et al, 2018;Schultz et al, 2012) and demonstrate minors' high capacities for resilience, empowerment, and posttraumatic growth.…”

“…As previous investigations have reported, violations of human rights in childhood have a devastating effect because child survivors of atrocious acts are left with deep physical and emotional wounds that generate stress and trauma as well as affect their mental health and development (Fajardo Mayo et al, 2018;Haj-Yahia et al, 2018;Schultz et al, 2012;Wessells, 2016). Therefore, it is important and urgent that international communities, states, and governmental and nongovernmental institutions take practical measures aimed at the prevention of violence as well as the recovery of child victims or those in danger of becoming a victim of armed conflict to reduce the lifelong psychological and social problems associated with experiences of conflict and violence in childhood.…”

“…Similarly, great diversity exists among children affected by armed conflict, and hence this subject cannot be addressed in a monolithic manner. It is necessary to consider their differences in terms of gender, stage of development, access to education, socioeconomic status, ethnic and cultural origins, type of victimhood (i.e., if the children are direct victims or indirect victims), and access to assistance or rehabilitative care (Haj-Yahia et al, 2018;Schultz et al, 2012). This diversity should not be avoided and when working with children affected by conflict and violence.…”