Onco-Receptors Targeting in Lung Cancer via Application of Surface-Modified and Hybrid Nanoparticles: A Cross-Disciplinary Review

Abstract

Lung cancer is among the most prevalent and leading causes of death worldwide. The major reason for high mortality is the late diagnosis of the disease, and in most cases, lung cancer is diagnosed at fourth stage in which the cancer has metastasized to almost all vital organs. The other reason for higher mortality is the uptake of the chemotherapeutic agents by the healthy cells, which in turn increases the chances of cytotoxicity to the healthy body cells. The complex pathophysiology of lung cancer provides various pathways to target the cancerous cells. In this regard, upregulated onco-receptors on the cell surface of tumor including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrins, transferrin receptor (TFR), folate receptor (FR), cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) receptor, etc. could be exploited for the inhibition of pathways and tumor-specific drug targeting. Further, cancer borne immunological targets like T-lymphocytes, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and dendritic cells could serve as a target site to modulate tumor activity through targeting various surface-expressed receptors or interfering with immune cell-specific pathways. Hence, novel approaches are required for both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancers. In this context, several researchers have employed various targeted delivery approaches to overcome the problems allied with the conventional diagnosis of and therapy methods used against lung cancer. Nanoparticles are cell nonspecific in biological systems, and may cause unwanted deleterious effects in the body. Therefore, nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) need further advancement to overcome the problem of toxicity in the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, the route of nanomedicines’ delivery to lungs plays a vital role in localizing the drug concentration to target the lung cancer. Surface-modified nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in the field of theranostics. This cross-disciplinary review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathways implicated in the different classes of lung cancer with an emphasis on the clinical implications of the increasing number of actionable molecular targets. Furthermore, it focuses specifically on the significance and emerging role of surface functionalized and hybrid nanomaterials as drug delivery systems through citing recent examples targeted at lung cancer treatment.

Design of Olmesartan Medoxomil-Loaded Nanosponges for Hypertension and Lung Cancer Treatments

“…Life-style modification shows an increase in the number of female smokers and smoking habits are relatively correlated for lung cancer due to the presence of mutagens in the inhaled smoke [ 2 ]. The prevalence of lung cancer is classically categorized into small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) which is typically based on the histological features [ 3 ]. Among lung cancer patients, 85% exhibit non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) while the rest (15%) of the patients have small cell lung cancer (SCLC).…”

Gelatin-Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite Hydrogels for Kluyveromyces lactis Encapsulation: Potential Applications in Probiotics and Bioreactor Packings

“…Another emerging platform for the delivery of bioactive compounds are nanomaterials (polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, bio-nanoparticles, micelles, peptides, metallic nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanomaterials [42,43]). Much progress has been made to achieve specific delivery goals regarding selectivity, bioavailability, and guided transport and targeting [44][45][46].…”

“…Much progress has been made to achieve specific delivery goals regarding selectivity, bioavailability, and guided transport and targeting [44][45][46]. For instance, carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, graphene quantum dots, graphene nanoribbons, silica-based nanocarriers, and inorganic nanoparticles [42,43,47,48] have been used to infiltrate tumors with the aid of cell-penetrating agents, and due to enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) mechanisms, they remain inside them for a more extended period [49][50][51].…”

The Nanosystems Involved in Treating Lung Cancer

“…Many micelles that contain anticancer drugs are under clinical trials, and only one of these nanosystems is approved for treating breast cancer patients [ 124 ]. Specifically, with regard to cancer lung management, one of the greatest advantages posed by micelles are the facile methods used for modifying their surfaces and the great specificity shown by these adjusted particles for the lung tumor environment [ 126 ]. Docetaxel (DTXL), Paclitaxel, and cisPt in combination with etoposide (ETO) are some of the most important anti-tumoral drugs for which micelles served as nanocarriers in lung cancer treatment studies [ 127 ].…”