Non-Hemoparasitic Protozoans

Evidence of intestinal parasites of dinosaurs

“…The extant E. invadens Rodhain is widespread in reptile populations, especially in carnivorous species (Frank, 1984), which supports Bertrand's conclusion that the coprolites came from carnivorous dinosaurs. Pathogenic strains of E. invadens feed on leucocytes, liver cells, epithelial cells and bacteria and can cause disease outbreaks in times of stress (Kudo, 1954 ;Frank, 1984). Common symptoms of gastro-intestinal infections in lizards and snakes are vomiting and severe diarrhoea.…”

Comparative morphology of the gallbladder and biliary tract in vertebrates: Variation in structure, homology in function and gallstones

“…Leptotheca, Myxobolus, Myxosoma, Hemneguya, and Myxidium are all found in amphibians. Dual infection is also possible; spores of both Myxidium and Hemneguya were found in the gallbladder of Pipa; the gallbladder had a gelatinous texture (Frank, 1984). Myxidium lesminteri was observed in the gallbladders of three southern African anurans (Delvinquier et al, 1992).…”

“…E. cascubeli in the gallbladder and extrahepatic ducts of rattlesnakes caused a proliferation of connective tissue and erosion and enlargement of the liver. The young are much more affected by this parasite; among chameleons in captivity, there was a high mortality rate for the infected young, while the infected mother remained apparently healthy (Frank, 1984). Another eimerid species, Tyzzeria chalcides, infects the ocellated skink; eimerids have also been found in lizards in Asia (Telford, 1992).…”

“…The gallbladder is a target organ for many parasites. Many of these parasites are host-specific, but some, such as the myxosporidians (multicellular organisms), may be more tissue-specific and show little host specificity (Frank, 1984;Poisson, 1953), at least in reptiles and amphibians. A complete account of the many parasites of fish, reptiles, and amphibians is not possible in this space; a short summary is presented here.…”

Evolutionary History of Terrestrial Pathogens and Endoparasites as Revealed in Fossils and Subfossils

“…The extant E. invadens destroys leucocytes and causes disease in reptiles when it invades the liver and causes hepatitis and nephritis. Common symptoms of gastrointestinal infections in lizards and snakes are vomiting and severe diarrhea [102][103][104]. Entamoebites antiquus provides a minimum date when pathogenic protozoa were established in the gut of vertebrates.…”