Lead content in Spanish market infant formulas and toxicological contribution

Abstract

Lead content was investigated in infant formulas by using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS). Formulas were distinguished as 'beginner', 'continuation' and 'special infant formula', the latter being classified as subtypes 'hypoallergenic', 'without lactose', 'vegetable base' and 'others'. The mean concentrations of lead were 25.7+/-8.4, 36.9+/-6.4 and 43.5+/-16.3 microg kg(-1) for beginner, continuation and special infant formula, respectively. Two-factor (types and subtypes) variance analyses were made and Tukey's mean homogeneity test (p < 0.05) was also performed for the formation of homogeneous groups. Significant differences (p < 0.001) were observed between types and two homogeneous groups were formed by the special infant formula type, with the highest lead content; the other group was constituted by the beginner type; and included in both groups were the continuation type infant formula. Their contribution to the provisional weekly intake (PTWI) was calculated from the mean concentrations in each type of infant formula, showing them to be food with a low toxicological risk (< 30% PTWI).

Lead levels in retail samples of Spanish infant formulae and their contribution to dietary intake of infants

“…The range of lead determined agrees reasonably well with most literature values (Ikem et al 2002, Moreno-Rojas 2002, Tripathi et al 1999, Rodríguez et al 1999, Biego et al 1998, Krachler et al 1998, Ursinyova and Hladikova 1997, Esteve et al 1994, Dabeka 1989, Dabeka and Mckenzie 1987,1988.…”

Determination of As, Cd, Cu, Hg and Pb in biological samples by modern electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry

“…Whereas sample calcination at temperatures above 400°C has been used by some authors [10,21,54,[104][105][106] (Table 1) several studies have shown that it may not be the most appropriate method since significant losses of As, Hg, Cd and Pb can occur [105]. In general, ashing methods may present poorer accuracy and provide lower analyte recovery when compared with acid digestion methods [54,104].…”

“…To improve this shortcoming, transversally heated atomizers (THA) were designed which provided a more uniform distribution of temperature over the length of the tube, decreasing the rate of atom loss by condensation, thereby increasing sensitivity and decreasing the detection limits. In spite of this, several studies reporting the determination of Cd, Cu and Pb in biological samples in the last 10 years have been conducted with ETAAS spectrometers equipped with LHAs [2,6,10,13,23,30,33,54,69,70,75,77,78,85,[87][88][89]106,121,123,137]. The most recent have been based on measurements with improved equipment (Zeeman background correction systems, multielement determination system) conducted with THAs [28,36,38,40,41,47,58,61,[79][80][81]90,92,94,98,114,115,125,127,128,131,134,[147]…”

“…Generally, the analyte is stabilized and the matrix is removed by volatilization. Such procedures have been particularly relevant to the determination of Cd and Pb for which six different modifiers used alone or mixed are popular: Pd(NO 3 ) 2 /Pd [31,33,41,50], PdCl 2 /Pd [68], PdCl 2 /Pd +ascorbic acid [7], Pd(NO 3 ) 2 /Pd + Mg(NO 3 ) 2 [10,13,38,44,53,54,60,81,[96][97][98]120,123], (NH 4 ) 3 PO 4 [1], NH 4 H 2 PO 4 [10,13,53,54,60,67,72,78,93,123], Mg(NO 3 ) 2 + (NH 4 ) 2 HPO 4 [7,17,27,41,58,63,90,91,94,106,135], Mg (NO 3 ) 2 +(NH 4 ) 3 PO 4 [9,41], Triton X-100+NH 4 H 2 PO 4 . [43,46,83,86,89]<...>…”

“…Temperatures most widely employed for atomization of Cd are 1100-2050°C, i.e., 1100 [80], 1200°C [46,86,96], 1300°C [83,89,92], 1400°C [41], 1500°C [7,93,94], 1600°C [27,67,70], 1650°C [10,53,54], 1700°C [31,50,81,97], 1800°C [34,36,43], 1900°C [1,17,44,72] and 2100°C [99]. For Pb, they are 1500-2200°C, i.e., 1500°C [80,94], 1600°C [27,70,83,92], 1650°C [106] 1700°C [81,89,97,107], 1800°C [4,7,10,36,41,53,54,67,95,96,…”