Large outbreak of norovirus: The baker who should have known better

Wit, Matty A. S. de; Widdowson, Marc‐Alain; Vennema, Harry; Bruin, Erwin de; Fernandes, Tricia; Koopmans, Marion

doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2007.04.005

Cited by 68 publications

(33 citation statements)

References 17 publications

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“…The effectiveness of cleaning and disinfection practices is often monitored by determining reductions for bacteria such as Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus in hospital settings and Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis in food preparation facilities (14,16). Additionally, the importance of environmental cleaning to control NoV outbreaks in health care settings is widely accepted (5,28,33), and decontamination of food production facilities may reduce the number and size of food-borne outbreaks (8,17). However, the reduction levels achieved for bacterial contaminations do not necessarily correlate with reduction levels for viral contaminations, and as recently reported by Greig and Lee (30), the scientific proof supporting the effectiveness of implemented intervention measures is limited.…”

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confidence: 99%

Residual Viral and Bacterial Contamination of Surfaces after Cleaning and Disinfection

Tuladhar

Hazeleger

Koopmans

et al. 2012

Appl Environ Microbiol

104

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c Environmental surfaces contaminated with pathogens can be sources of indirect transmission, and cleaning and disinfection are common interventions focused on reducing contamination levels. We determined the efficacy of cleaning and disinfection procedures for reducing contamination by noroviruses, rotavirus, poliovirus, parechovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella enterica from artificially contaminated stainless steel surfaces. After a single wipe with water, liquid soap, or 250-ppm free chlorine solution, the numbers of infective viruses and bacteria were reduced by 1 log 10 for poliovirus and close to 4 log 10 for influenza virus. There was no significant difference in residual contamination levels after wiping with water, liquid soap, or 250-ppm chlorine solution. When a single wipe with liquid soap was followed by a second wipe using 250-or 1,000-ppm chlorine, an extra 1-to 3-log 10 reduction was achieved, and except for rotavirus and norovirus genogroup I, no significant additional effect of 1,000 ppm compared to 250 ppm was found. A reduced correlation between reduction in PCR units (PCRU) and reduction in infectious particles suggests that at least part of the reduction achieved in the second step is due to inactivation instead of removal alone. We used data on infectious doses and transfer efficiencies to estimate a target level to which the residual contamination should be reduced and found that a single wipe with liquid soap followed by a wipe with 250-ppm free chlorine solution was sufficient to reduce the residual contamination to below the target level for most of the pathogens tested.

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confidence: 99%

Residual Viral and Bacterial Contamination of Surfaces after Cleaning and Disinfection

Tuladhar

Hazeleger

Koopmans

et al. 2012

Appl Environ Microbiol

104

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“…Therefore, NoV are readily transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contaminated foods such as raspberries, water or bivalves, aerosols, or fomites (6,9,25,29). Two contrasting patterns of outbreaks are recognized (32).…”

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confidence: 99%

Marked Genomic Diversity of Norovirus Genogroup I Strains in a Waterborne Outbreak

Nenonen

Hannoun

Larsson³

et al. 2012

Appl Environ Microbiol

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bMarked norovirus (NoV) diversity was detected in patient samples from a large community outbreak of gastroenteritis with waterborne epidemiology affecting approximately 2,400 people. NoV was detected in 33 of 50 patient samples examined by groupspecific real-time reverse transcription-PCR. NoV genotype I (GI) strains predominated in 31 patients, with mixed GI infections occurring in 5 of these patients. Sequence analysis of RNA-dependent polymerase-N/S capsid-coding regions (ϳ900 nucleotides in length) confirmed the dominance of the GI strains (n ‫؍‬ 36). Strains of NoV GI.4 (n ‫؍‬ 21) and GI.7 (n ‫؍‬ 9) were identified, but six strains required full capsid amino acid analyses (530 to 550 amino acids) based on control sequencing of cloned amplicons before the virus genotype could be determined. Three strains were assigned to a new NoV GI genotype, proposed as GI.9, based on capsid amino acid analyses showing 26% dissimilarity from the established genotypes GI.1 to GI.8. Three other strains grouped in a sub-branch of GI.3 with 13 to 15% amino acid dissimilarity to GI.3 GenBank reference strains. Phylogenetic analysis (2.1 kb) of 10 representative strains confirmed these genotype clusters. Strains of NoV GII.4 (n ‫؍‬ 1), NoV GII.6 (n ‫؍‬ 2), sapovirus GII.2 (n ‫؍‬ 1), rotavirus (n ‫؍‬ 3), adenovirus (n ‫؍‬ 1), and Campylobacter spp. (n ‫؍‬ 2) were detected as single infections or as mixtures with NoV GI. Marked NoV GI diversity detected in patients was consistent with epidemiologic evidence of waterborne NoV infections, suggesting human fecal contamination of the water supply. Recognition of NoV diversity in a cluster of patients provided a useful warning marker of waterborne contamination in the Lilla Edet outbreak.

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“…Human NoV strains belong to GI, GII or GIV genogroups from the five existing ones. NoVs are the major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis worldwide and are related to the consumption of food and water or aquatic recreational activities attacking persons of all ages (de Wit et al 2003), as well as outbreaks in nurseries, hospitals, daycare centers and hotels (Gallimore et al 2004, de Wit et al 2007). However, since the 1990s, molecular procedures have recognized this virus as a common agent of sporadic self-limiting gastroenteritis (de Wit et al 2001, Marshall et al 2003, Oh et al 2003.…”

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confidence: 99%

Hospitalization due to norovirus and genotypes of rotavirus in pediatric patients, state of Espírito Santo

Ribeiro

Giuberti

Barreira

et al. 2008

Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz

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Large outbreak of norovirus: The baker who should have known better

Cited by 68 publications

References 17 publications

Residual Viral and Bacterial Contamination of Surfaces after Cleaning and Disinfection

Residual Viral and Bacterial Contamination of Surfaces after Cleaning and Disinfection

Marked Genomic Diversity of Norovirus Genogroup I Strains in a Waterborne Outbreak

Hospitalization due to norovirus and genotypes of rotavirus in pediatric patients, state of Espírito Santo

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