Language policy, ethnic conflict, and conflict resolution: Albanian in the former Yugoslavia

Abstract

The 1990s disintegration of Yugoslavia was marked by vicious ethnic conflict in several parts of the region. In this paper, I consider the role of policy towards the Albanian language in promoting and perpetuating conflict. I take three case studies from the former Yugoslavia in which conflict between ethnic Albanians and the dominant group emerged during the late 1990s and early 2000s-Serbia's Preševo Valley, Kosovo, and Macedonia-and examine language policies in these regions toward ethnic Albanians from the time of the Ottoman Empire to the present. Framing discriminatory language policies as structural violence (Galtung in J Peace Res 6(3): 1969), I show that conflict remains intractable in Kosovo, where discriminatory language policies have been applied first to Albanians and then to Serbs. By contrast, policies that improve linguistic rights for Albanians in Macedonia and Serbia without discriminating against Macedonians or Serbs in turn have played a role in resolving the conflicts there. Furthermore, integration of Albanians in Serbia has resulted in fewer incidents in recent years than in Macedonia. I argue that while assimilationist language policies serve as both indicator/cause of conflict, policies that promote positive language rights (Wright in Lang Policy 6: 2007) and emphasize balanced bilingualism may be seen as a potential tool for conflict resolution.

Symbolic identity building, ethnic nationalism and the linguistic reconfiguration of the urban spaces of the capital of Pristina, Kosovo

“…From the 1960s onwards, significant political changes in the SFRY promoted Albanian rights in Kosovo (Detrez, 1999;Duncan, 2016;Judah, 2008;Malcolm, 1998). Concomitant with the decentralization of Yugoslavia, the geopolitical status of Kosovo was promoted to that of a self-governing unit in the Constitution of 1974.…”

“…Over time, however, the Latin script dominated as the Cyrillic-Orthodox alphabet was increasingly marginalized in the socialist era. The opening of the Albanian University of Pristina in 1969 along with various Albanian institutions, schools, and cultural organizations reflected the increased power, prestige and status of the Albanian community in Kosovo (Duncan, 2016). The promotion of the socialist ideology contributed along with various socio-economic and cultural factors to the Albanianization of the region (Detrez, 1999;Janssen, 2015;Malcolm, 1998).…”

Poređenje dvojezičnosti u Srbiji sa posebnim osvrtom na srpsko-albansku dvojezičnost

“…Politička dešavanja s početka XX veka dovela su do stvaranja Kraljevine Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca, koja je kasnije nazvana Kraljevinom Jugoslavijom. Po završetku Drugog svetskog rata, 1945. godine, osnovana je Socijalistička Federativna Republika Jugoslavija, čije su granice ostale iste kao u međuratnom periodu (Duncan, 2016), dok su svi njeni najveći narodi (Hrvati, Slovenci, Srbi, Crnogorci, Makedonci i Bošnjaci) bili deo južnoslovenskog jezičkog kontinuuma, kojeg čini nekoliko (relativno) međusobno razumljivih varijeteta (Munishi, 2010). Međutim, u okviru ove države našli su se i Albanci u različitim delovima SFRJ, pripadnici zajednice koja je govorila jezikom koji ne pripada slovenskoj jezičkoj porodici (Munishi, 2010).…”

“…U toku postojanja jugoslovenske države postojao je i zajednički jezik Srba, Hrvata, Bošnjaka i Crnogoraca -srpskohrvatski, najbrojniji južnoslovenski jezik u to vreme, kojim je govorilo oko 21.000 000 ljudi (Sussex, Cubberley, 2006). U celoj SFR Jugoslaviji srpskohrvatski jezik je služio kao lingua franca kojim su se služili svi narodi i narodnosti koji su u njoj živeli, bez obzira na njihov maternji jezik, što ga je činilo dominantnim jezikom u gotovo svim domenima, formalnim i neformalnim (Duncan, 2016;Munishi, 2010;Munishi 2011;Grčević 2011). Međutim, pored dominantnog srpskohrvatskog, SFR Jugoslavija je, budući multinacionalna i multijezična država, dozvoljavala jezička prava govornicima manjinskih jezika u onim oblastima u kojima su se ti jezici govorili (Duncan, 2016).…”

“…U celoj SFR Jugoslaviji srpskohrvatski jezik je služio kao lingua franca kojim su se služili svi narodi i narodnosti koji su u njoj živeli, bez obzira na njihov maternji jezik, što ga je činilo dominantnim jezikom u gotovo svim domenima, formalnim i neformalnim (Duncan, 2016;Munishi, 2010;Munishi 2011;Grčević 2011). Međutim, pored dominantnog srpskohrvatskog, SFR Jugoslavija je, budući multinacionalna i multijezična država, dozvoljavala jezička prava govornicima manjinskih jezika u onim oblastima u kojima su se ti jezici govorili (Duncan, 2016). Osim toga, bilingvizam i diglosija subili rasprostranjeni ne samo među pripadnicima manjinskih grupa, već ponekad i među pripadnicima bivših jugoslovenskih naroda.…”