Impacts of Salinity Intrusion in Community Health: A Review of Experiences on Drinking Water Sodium from Coastal Areas of Bangladesh

Abstract

Increasing salt intake has substantial negative impacts on human health and well-being. This article focused on the construction of Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework for drinking water sodium (DWS) followed by a review on the published studies regarding salinity intrusion, DWS, and their effects on health perspectives in Bangladesh. Saline water is an important factor for hypertension or high blood pressure in the coastal areas. DWS can also lead women, especially pregnant women, to an increased risk of (pre)eclampsia, hypertension, as well as infant mortality. Several interventions, such as rainwater harvesting, pond sand filter (PSF) system, managed aquifer recharge (MAR), and pilot scale solar-powered desalination plants, such as reverse osmosis (RO), were reviewed on the context of their effectiveness in controlling drinking water sodium. Although rainwater consumption has the positive impact of low or no sodium intake, it still possesses negative impacts from not having vital minerals. A steady increment in sodium concentration through the span of the dry season was observed in MAR. It is, subsequently, important to increase awareness on DWS intake by providing and adopting correct technological interventions and training communities on the maintenance of the adaptive measures.

Spatio-temporal patterns of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia in relation to drinking water salinity at the district level in Bangladesh from 2016 to 2018

“…Projections suggest global sea levels will rise 1 m or more by 2100, putting many coastal communities at risk, particularly countries in South, Southeast, and East Asia because of their densely populated delta regions (Nicholls and Cazenave 2010). An estimated 25 million people across these regions are at risk of drinking saline water (Shammi et al 2019). Salinity in surface and groundwater is determined by environmental features, anthropogenic changes, and land management practices, as well as by sea level rise and other climate related factors (Khan et al 2011).…”

“…In Bangladesh, as in many low-income countries, most of the rural population accesses drinking water from tube wells. Consuming sodium has been linked with immunological effects on skin tissue, intestinal microbiology, and other organs, as well as cardiovascular disease, inflammation, infection, and autoimmunity (Shammi et al 2019); it has also been associated with hypertension, infant mortality, and PE/E (Khan et al 2011, Khan et al 2014, Talukder et al 2016, Nahian et al 2018. When groundwater is too saline, people report harvesting rainwater to drink instead.…”

“…However, drinking rainwater may pose other health risks, as rainwater may be contaminated with dust or water-borne disease pathogens, and its storage may create breeding sites for mosquitoes that carry vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and chikungunya (Hoque et al 2016). Other interventions being explored to address salinity include pond sand filter systems, managed aquifer recharge (MAR), solar-powered desalination plants, and reverse osmosis methods (Shammi et al 2019). Another potential area for exploration for blood pressure, specifically, is described in a recent study that found water with higher levels of calcium and magnesium were linked with lower blood pressure even if sodium levels were high (Naser et al 2019.…”

“…High levels of groundwater salinity are commonly recorded in coastal aquifers of southern Bangladesh. Groundwater salinity is generally defined by total dissolved solids (TDS) or electrical conductivity (EC); however, sometimes chemical constituents, such as chloride (Cl), are also reported (Zahid et al 2013, Shammi et al 2019. Groundwater with greater concentration of dissolved ions has higher EC and hence higher salinity.…”

Impact of Salinity on Infant and Neonatal Mortality in Bangladesh

“…Health consequences of salinity were also documented for coastal Bangladesh ranging from hypertension to poor maternal health. Salinity increased the risk of gestational hypertension particularly in the coastal areas (Shammi et al, 2019;Talukder et al, 2016;Scheelbeek et al, 2016;Khan et al, 2014).…”