Graphene Materials in Antimicrobial Nanomedicine: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Abstract

Graphene materials (GMs), such as graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced GO (rGO), and graphene quantum dots (GQDs), are rapidly emerging as a new class of broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents. This report describes their state-of-the-art and potential future covering both fundamental aspects and biomedical applications. First, the current understanding of the antimicrobial mechanisms of GMs is illustrated, and the complex picture of underlying structure-property-activity relationships is sketched. Next, the different modes of utilization of antimicrobial GMs are explained, which include their use as colloidal dispersions, surface coatings, and photothermal/photodynamic therapy agents. Due to their practical relevance, the examples where GMs function as synergistic agents or release platforms for metal ions and/or antibiotic drugs are also discussed. Later, the applicability of GMs in the design of wound dressings, infection-protective coatings, and antibiotic-like formulations ("nanoantibiotics") is assessed. Notably, to support our assessments, the existing clinical applications of conventional carbon materials are also evaluated. Finally, the key hurdles of the field are highlighted, and several possible directions for future investigations are proposed. We hope that the roadmap provided here will encourage researchers to tackle remaining challenges toward clinical translation of promising research findings and help realize the potential of GMs in antimicrobial nanomedicine.

Recent Advances in Carbon Nanomaterials for Cancer Phototherapy

“…A comparative study implies that graphene may possess significantly better photothermal effect than CNTs at the same concentration, although this result may need further explanation . Among various graphene derivatives, graphene oxide (GO) is widely used for PTT due to its good water dispersibility and easy functionalization . Liu′s group in 2010 for the first time studied graphene materials for in vivo cancer PTT .…”

Two‐Dimensional Materials for Antimicrobial Applications: Graphene Materials and Beyond

“…Graphene, composed of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, is the superstar of the 2D material family, and GMs are the most explored 2D materials for antimicrobial applications . Their sharp edges, enormous basal planes, and surface moieties endow GMs with intrinsic antimicrobial activity mainly through physical interactions with microorganisms and/or by inducing oxidative stress.…”

“…This is why the antimicrobial mechanisms of GMs are complicated and the factor that dominates the bactericidal effects still remains controversial. Several microorganism inactivation mechanisms have been proposed for GMs, and mainly include physical interactions (“nano‐knife” effect, wrapping/trapping, and lipid extraction) and the induction of oxidative stress . The proposed antimicrobial mechanisms of GMs are schematically shown in Figure .…”

“…In addition to physical interactions with bacteria, the induction of oxidative stress is another widely accepted antibacterial mechanism of GMs . GM‐induced oxidative stress can be divided into two types: reactive‐oxygen‐species (ROS)‐dependent and ROS‐independent pathways.…”

Novel Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Chitosan/Modified Graphene Oxide Biocomposite for Wound Dressing Application

“…Graphene materials are emerging as a new class of broad‐spectrum antimicrobial agents. Its antimicrobial mechanisms of action include physical destruction (nano knife effect and mechanical wrapping), oxidative stress theory and lipid extraction 9,10. In addition to antibacterial properties, graphene sheets are often used as reinforcing components in a polymer matrix due to their high mechanical rigidity and large surface area.…”