Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature.

Abstract

According to our social-role theory of gender and helping, the male gender role fosters helping that is heroic and chivalrous, whereas the female gender role fosters helping that is nurturant and caring. In social psychological studies, helping behavior has been examined in the context of short-term encounters with strangers. This focus has tended to exclude from the research literature those helping behaviors prescribed by the female gender role, because they are displayed primarily in long-term, close relationships. In contrast, the helping behaviors prescribed by the male gender role have been generously represented in research findings because they are displayed in relationships with strangers as well as in close relationships. Results from our meta-analytic review of sex differences in helping behavior indicate that in general men helped more than women and women received more help than men. Nevertheless, sex differences in helping were extremely inconsistent across studies and were successfully predicted by various attributes of the studies and the helping behaviors. These predictors were interpreted in terms of several aspects of our social-role theory of gender and helping.

Two Sides of the Same Coin? The Relations between Prosocial and Physically Aggressive Behaviors

“…Consistent with prior research, women were more sympathetic and engaged in more altruistic, compliant, and emotional prosocial behaviors, whereas men were more physically aggressive and engaged in more public prosocial behaviors (Eagly and Crowley, 1986;Eisenberg, 2003;Carlo et al, 1999;Carlo and Randall, 2002;Knight et al, 1996;Ostrov and Keating, 2004). However, group analyses did not indicate signifi cant differences in the model paths for men and women.…”

“…Scholars examining prosocial behaviors and aggression have also reported many gender differences in these behaviors. Females tend to engage in more prosocial behaviors, show more perspective taking and be more empathic, sympathetic, and nurturing than males, whereas males have been found to be more physically aggressive and engage more risky and instrumental forms of prosocial behaviors (Eagly and Crowley, 1986;Eisenberg, 2003;Carlo et al, 1999;Carlo and Randall, 2002;Knight et al, 1996;Ostrov and Keating, 2004). Gender differences in aggression may be especially pronounced in emotionally evocative situations (Knight et al, 2002).…”

Testing predictions from the male control theory of men's partner violence

“…Contrary to the feminist assertion that violence against women is tolerated in society, the norm of chivalry works to protect women and condemn those who are aggressive towards them. This argument is supported by studies of benevolent sexism (e.g., Glick & Fiske, 1996), which demonstrate that women are more likely than men to receive help (see also Eagly & Crowley, 1986); by studies finding the greater moral condemnation of violence against wives than against husbands (e.g., Felson & Feld, 2009;Harris & Cook, 1994); and also by the finding that women's violence towards their male partners is judged less harshly than men's violence towards female partners (e.g., .…”

Home to Work Spillover and Psychological Distress in Middle-Aged Women

“…The particular context in which we examined helping behavior may also account for the nonsignificant findings. As previous researchers reported, men tend to exhibit willingness to help when the indi vidual is in immediate distress, whereas women tend to exhibit willingness to help in long term care relationships (Eagly & Crowley, 1986;Lay et al, 1974;Levine & Crowther, 2008). In our study, the request for help was not urgent and the par ticipants did not know the researcher.…”

“…Although women offer more help than men overall, men offer more help in emergency situations that involve an immedi ate threat to the victim and bystanders (Eagly & Crowley, 1986;Lay et al, 1974;Levine & Crowther, 2008). Women provide more help in long term care relationships such as caring for children or aging parents (Eagly & Crowley, 1986;Levine & Crowther, 2008).…”