Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems

Abstract

The theory of formative assessment outlined in this article is relevant to a broad spectrum of learning outcomes in a wide variety of subjects. Specifically, it applies wherever multiple criteria are used in making judgments about the quality of student responses. The theory has less relevance for outcomes in which student responses may be assessed simply as correct or incorrect. Feedback is defined in a particular way to highlight its function in formative assessment. This definition differs in several significant respects from that traditionally found in educational research. Three conditions for effective feedback are then identified and their implications discussed. A key premise is that for students to be able to improve, they must develop the capacity to monitor the quality of their own work during actual production. This in tum requires that students possess an appreciation of what high quality work is, that they have the evaluative skill necessary for them to compare with some objectivity the quality of what they are producing in relation to the higher standard, and that they develop a store of tactics or moves which can be drawn upon to modify their own work. It is argued that these skills can be developed by providing direct authentic evaluative experience for students. Instructional systems which do not make explicit provision for the acquisition of evaluative expertise are deficient, because they set up artificial but potentially removable performance ceilings for students.

Assessing dance: A phenomonological study of formative assessment in dance education

“…Several researchers have stressed that formative assessment can improve student learning (Gardner, 2012;Hattie, 2009;Sadler, 1989). The significance of being conscious about the student's perspective within education has been emphasised by Hattie (2009) who also stresses the importance of explicitness regarding the aims of education, the criteria as well as the importance of varying the forms of teaching and feedback.…”

“…The practice of assessment requires that the goals of education are made explicit, that it develops a consciousness of where the students are in relation to the course goals and how students can reach a higher level of achievement in the course (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2011). Formative assessment can be seen as the use of judgement as it is intended to shape and improve the student´s proficiency (Sadler, 1989). Rubrics can be used to quantitatively evaluate complex performances and assist formative assessment (Warburton, 2010).…”

“…(Black & Wiliam, 2009, p. 9) The concept of feedback can be seen in numerous formulations relating to formative assessment (Black & Wiliam, 2009;Gardner, 2012;Klapp Lekholm, 2008;Sadler, 1989). Definitions of feedback include both the informational content as well as the effect of the feedback (Sadler, 1989).…”

“…(Black & Wiliam, 2009, p. 9) The concept of feedback can be seen in numerous formulations relating to formative assessment (Black & Wiliam, 2009;Gardner, 2012;Klapp Lekholm, 2008;Sadler, 1989). Definitions of feedback include both the informational content as well as the effect of the feedback (Sadler, 1989). Since feedback is designed to alter the achievement level of the student, one way to define it is to look at it as a gap between the student´s current achievement level and a referenced level (Ramaprasad, 1983).…”

“…Since feedback is designed to alter the achievement level of the student, one way to define it is to look at it as a gap between the student´s current achievement level and a referenced level (Ramaprasad, 1983). Additionally, Sadler (1989) describes how a feedback loop should define what the student should learn, defines and communicates an excellent performance as well as how to improve an inadequate performance. Formative assessment takes place when teaching is modified to respond to students' needs (Gardner, 2012).…”