“…The replacement of the main carbon backbone by a soft element e.g., S (Yang et al, 2016 ; Yao et al, 2019 ), Se (Yang et al, 2014 ), N (Jiang et al, 2015b ; Chen et al, 2016 ; Carolan et al, 2017 ; He S. et al, 2018 ; Yao et al, 2019 ), P (Venkateswara Raju et al, 2020 ), B (Wei et al, 2020 ), or both N and S (Zhang et al, 2018 ), and a hard element e.g., Fe (Zhuo S. et al, 2019 ) and Ag (Zhuo S. J. et al, 2019 ) results in the formation of a doped CQD. For example, Raju et al, autoclaved tri-sodium citrate in the presence of phosphoric acid at 180°C for 12 h resulting in the formation of a p–doped CQD, which was further used to detect Cu 2+ ions (Venkateswara Raju et al, 2020 ).…”