Exposure to Zoonotic West Nile Virus in Long-Tailed Macaques and Bats in Peninsular Malaysia

Abstract

The role of wildlife such as wild birds, macaques, and bats in the spreading and maintenance of deadly zoonotic pathogens in nature have been well documented in many parts of the world. One such pathogen is the mosquitoes borne virus, namely the West Nile Virus (WNV). Previous research has shown that 1:7 and 1:6 Malaysian wild birds are WNV antibody and RNA positive, respectively, and bats in North America may not be susceptible to the WNV infection. This study was conducted to determine the status of WNV in Malaysian macaques and bats found in mangrove forests and caves, respectively. Archive sera and oropharyngeal swabs from long-tailed macaques were subjected to the antibody detection using WNV competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) and WNV RNA using RT-PCR, respectively, while the archive oropharyngeal and rectal swabs from bats were subjected to RT-PCR without serological analysis due to the unavailability of serum samples. The analysis revealed a WNV seropositivity of 29.63% (24/81) and none of the macaques were positive for WNV RNA. Meanwhile, 12.2% (5/41) of the bats from Pteropodidae, Emballonuridae, and Rhinolophidae families tested positive for WNV RNA. Here, we show a high WNV antibody prevalence in macaques and a moderate WNV RNA in various Malaysian bat species, suggesting that WNV circulates through Malaysian wild animals and Malaysian bat species may be susceptible to the WNV infection.

Update on Potentially Zoonotic Viruses of European Bats

“…The genus Flavivirus comprises a variety of arthropod-borne human-pathogenic viruses (Arboviruses) with a high impact on global health (i.e., Dengue virus, Zika virus, Yellow fever virus, Tick-borne encephalitis virus, West Nile virus). In 1970, West Nile virus (WNV) was detected and isolated from bats ( Rousettus leschenaultii , Lesser Short-nosed Fruit Bats, Lesser Sheath-tailed Bats, and Thai Horseshoe Bats) in India, Malaysia, and Mexico [ 155 , 156 , 157 ]. Subsequent to the epizootic emergence of WNV in the USA, Mexico, and Canada, studies on amplification hosts (other than birds) were performed.…”

The Predicament of Macaque Conservation in Malaysia

“…In a study by Ain-Najwa et al [37] using archived long-tailed macaque samples, where sera were used to detect West Nile virus (WNV) antibody through competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA), and WNV RNA from oropharyngeal swabs via RT-PCR. Results showed that the macaques were all negative for WNV RNA, yet high WNV antibody prevalence was observed.…”

Short Communication: Previously Unreported Human−primate Conflict in Kalisalak Forest, Central Java-Indonesia

“…Reported by [2] the cynomolgus macaque distributed in Southeast Asia (Indonesia [2]- [4], Malaysia [2], [5]- [7], Philippines [2], [7], [8], Myanmar [2], [9], Thailand [1], [2], Vietnam [2], [10], [11], Cambodia [2], [10], [12]). Most natural habitats include evergreen forests [1], [13]- [15], agricultural lands [1], [9], [16], swamps [1], beach [1], [17], [18], mangrove forests [1], [19], [20], riparian forests [1], public parks [1], various human-dominated landscapes [1], [2], nature recreation park [21]- [23], national park [2], [24]- [27], and temples [28], [29]. IUCN last report categorised it as the least concern [30].…”