Energy-Harvesting Wireless Sensor Networks (EH-WSNs)

Abstract

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are crucial in supporting continuous environmental monitoring, where sensor nodes are deployed and must remain operational to collect and transfer data from the environment to a base-station. However, sensor nodes have limited energy in their primary power storage unit, and this energy may be quickly drained if the sensor node remains operational over long periods of time. Therefore, the idea of harvesting ambient energy from the immediate surroundings of the deployed sensors, to recharge the batteries and to directly power the sensor nodes, has recently been proposed. The deployment of energy harvesting in environmental field systems eliminates the dependency of sensor nodes on battery power, drastically reducing the maintenance costs required to replace batteries. In this article, we review the state-of-the-art in energy-harvesting WSNs for environmental monitoring applications, including Animal Tracking, Air Quality Monitoring, Water Quality Monitoring, and Disaster Monitoring to improve the ecosystem and human life. In addition to presenting the technologies for harvesting energy from ambient sources and the protocols that can take advantage of the harvested energy, we present challenges that must be addressed to further advance energy-harvesting-based WSNs, along with some future work directions to address these challenges.

Securing Wireless Sensor Networks Against Denial‐of‐Sleep Attacks Using RSA Cryptography Algorithm and Interlock Protocol

“…Relative to the sender and receiver nodes distance (di), energy consumption will be modeled as a free space or a multipath fading channel. In Equation (6), 38 the amount of energy consumed to transmitT bits of data to distance di is demonstrated:…”

“…Furthermore, di 0 Equation (6), which is a constant value, is calculated according to Equation (7) 38 :…”

“…FIGURE 2 Base station and nodes position Plus, the necessary energy to receive T bits of data is as demonstrated in Equation (8) 38 :…”

Autonomous Energy Management System Achieving Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting in Wireless Sensors

“…where represents the energy consumed to transmit or receive 1 bit message, the constants and depend on the transmitter amplifier model. is for the free space model, is for multipath model, is the distance between the transmitter and the receiver and 0 is a threshold distance calculated as follows: 0 = √ ⁄ (7) and the energy consumed by the radio to receive ( ) bits data information is defined by:…”

“…It is considered an emerging and reasonably mature technology to overcome the limited lifetime of battery-operated wearable devices and allows continuous recharging of the energy stored during use. The environmental energy for scavenging is mostly provided by ambient light (artificial lighting and solar lighting), radio frequency, thermal sources, kinetic and vibration sources [4] [5]. To harvest energy from vibration, there are different techniques such as electrostatic, electromagnetic, magnetostrictive and piezoelectric [6] [7] [8].…”