Does the Vertical Mosaic Still Exist? Ethnicity and Income in Canada, 1991*

Abstract

Cet article met à jour nos connaissances sur les liens entre appartenance ethnique et classe sociale au Canada en s'appuyant sur le document The Public Use Microdata File for Individuals, qui se fonde sur le recensement du Canada de 1991. L'analyse se fait en trois temps: on examine d'abord les liens entre l'appartenance ethnique et le niveau d'etudes par groupe ethnique; on considère ensuite les revenus en fonction du niveau d'études chez différents groupes ethniques; enfin, à l'aide de l'analyse de régression log‐linéaire, on étudie les liens entre appartenance ethnique, niveau d'études et revenu en neutralisant les effets de nombreuses autres variables sociales. On constate que, dans la plupart des catégories de niveau d'études, les Canadiens‐Français ont des revenus beaucoup plus élevés que les Canadiens‐Anglais, lorsqu'on neutralise les effets d'autres variables. À cette exception près, il n'y a presque aucune différence de revenus entre les différentes ethnies d'origine européenne possédant le même niveau d'études lorsqu'on neutralise les effets d'autres variables sociales. Toutefois, ceux qui appartiennent à des minorités visibles ont des revenus beaucoup plus modestes que les autres Canadiens, quel que soit leur niveau d'études. L'origine raciale est done devenue la principale cause d'inégalités de revenus au Canada.This paper updates our knowledge about the relationship between ethnicity and social class in Canada using The Public Use Microdata File for Individuals drawn from the 1991 Census of Canada. We provide three levels of analysis. First, we examine the relationship between ethnicity and education by ethnic group. Second, we examine the “return to education” in terms of income for those of various ethnic groups. Third, we use log‐linear regression to examine the relationship between ethnicity, education and income while controlling for the effects of a variety of other social variables. We find that, at most educational levels, Canadians of French ethnicity now earn significantly more than those of British ethnicity when other variables are controlled. With this exception, for those of European ethnic backgrounds there are now virtually no significant differences in income within educational levels when other social variables are controlled. However, those who belong to visible minorities have significantly lower incomes than other Canadians at all educational levels. Race is now the fundamental basis of income inequality in Canada.

Ethnoracial Origins, Social Capital, and Earnings

“…Consistent with earlier research, this study shows that ethnoracial ancestry is an important predictor of income attainment and that the brunt of ethnic inequality is experienced by immigrant visible minorities (Lian and Mathews 1998;Li 2000;Reitz 2001;Nakhaie 2006). Moreover, the study revealed that social capital is a useful resource for accessing more resources, but its effect varies by gender (van Emmerik 2006), ethnoracial origins, birth (Li 2004;Lamba 2003), and types of social capital.…”

“…First, visible minorities as a group experience discrimination and receive lower returns for their human capital than others (Henry and Ginsberg 1985;Lian and Mathews 1998;Henry and Tator 2000). Possession of social capital may help them overcome labour force discriminatory practices and improve their income over and above their human capital.…”

Color by Numbers: Minority Earnings in Canada 1995–2005

“…A large body of Canadian research shows that visible minority immigrants can face substantial labor market disparity, which may be worsening over time (see for example, Akbari, 1992;Howland and Sakellariou, 1993;Stelcner and Kyriazis, 1995;Christofides and Swidinsky, 1994;Baker and Benjamin 1995;Hum and Simpson, 1998;Pendakur and Pendakur, 1998;Lian and Mathews 1998). A smaller literature has established that Canadian-born visible minorities also face labor market penalties (see Stelcner and Kyriazis 1995;.…”

When does nationalism turn violent?

“…Even more, although educated Francophones were most affected by inequality in 1970, by 1991 the economic returns of education were actually greater among Francophones (Lian and Matthews 1998). For instance, while significant earnings differentials existed between Francophone and Anglophone Québecois as late as 1970, these differentials had already improved considerably by that time and virtually disappeared by 1980.…”