Dietary Predictors of Phthalate and Bisphenol Exposures in Pregnant Women

Abstract

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can disrupt fetal developmental processes during pregnancy, leading to long-term adverse outcomes in humans. A major source of exposure to EDCs, such as phthalates and bisphenols, is the food supply, primarily due to contamination from processing and packaging. Therefore, this review aimed to 1) review food-monitoring sources of phthalates and bisphenols, and 2) evaluate methodologies and provide future directions needed to establish EDC-limiting dietary recommendations in pregnancy. Using PubMed, 10 peer-reviewed studies were found on dietary predictors of EDC exposure in pregnancy, and all were selected for review. Use of plastic containers in pregnancy was associated with higher urinary phthalate metabolites, whereas canned food consumption was associated with higher urinary bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations. Foods and dietary patterns associated with healthier food choices (e.g., organic/grown/raised/caught foods, folic acid supplements, vegetarianism) were generally associated with lower urinary phthalate metabolite and BPA concentrations. Despite the many food-monitoring studies reporting high BPA and phthalate concentrations in various foods, the designs of most studies described here were not sufficiently robust to consistently detect associations of specific foods/food groups with phthalates and BPA. Given the limitations of currently available research, future studies should incorporate more valid questionnaires to accurately assess dietary EDC exposure, strive for concurrent diet and exposure assessment, and assess whether geographical and cultural differences modify associations of diet with gestational EDC exposures. Such progress will be critical for developing dietary recommendations that ensure the safety and health of pregnant women.

Bisphenol A and Phthalates in Diet: An Emerging Link with Pregnancy Complications

“…Fish, vegetables and dairy products which are not packed in plastic containers or cans have therefore low concentrations of BPA and phthalates [24][25][26]. Conversely, ready-to-eat food stored in plastic bags is a major exposure source [27]. After ingestion, BPA is partially metabolized by the intestinal microbiota and largely absorbed in the intestinal tract [28].…”

Use of Plastics with Hot Food among Saudi Pregnant Women Is Associated with Increased Concentrations of A1C, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, and Homocysteine and Decreased Concentrations of Vitamins and Minerals

“…Pacyga et al [12] considered maternal age and BMI as factors that correlate with differing plastic usage patterns, and this formed the basis for the inclusion of these characteristics in order to understand the dynamics of our study population. Our results show that, besides age, no tested maternal characteristics, such as the educational qualifications of the pregnant women and their pre-pregnancy BMI, correlated with the variation in frequency of plastic usage.…”

“…Even though the levels of TSH and HCY are within the normal range, this increase with plastic usage indicates that this is not a healthy practice as higher levels of both of these are known to increase the risk of recurrent miscarriages [28,29]. In addition, Pacyga et al [12] have reported that bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates present in plastics impact TSH levels in pregnant women. However, Aung et al [30] observed that TSH and BPA were inversely associated with each other, contradictory to our results.…”

“…Examples of these contaminants include polyethylene, plasticizers from polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acetaldehyde from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polychlorinated biphenyls, bisphenols A, S, and F, phthalates (diethyl-phthalate-DEHP) from polymers, acrylonitriles, dioxins, parabens [10], and styrene from polystyrene [5,11]. Of these, phthalates and bisphenols are the two materials most commonly used in the manufacture of food containers and tableware, which is a hazardous practice [12]. All these chemical exposures or additives are known to cause serious diseases among humans.…”

Endocrine Disruptors in Food: Impact on Gut Microbiota and Metabolic Diseases

“…Phthalates are EDCs used as plasticizers in food processing and packaging, adhesives, personal care products, and cosmetics. A major source of phthalate exposure is the diet, primarily due to contamination during processing and packaging [149]. Phthalates have been considered obesogens, therefore contributing to overweightness and obesity.…”