Design Patterns for Smart Contracts in the Ethereum Ecosystem

Wöhrer, Maximilian; Zdun, Uwe

doi:10.1109/cybermatics_2018.2018.00255

Cited by 71 publications

(83 citation statements)

References 6 publications

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“…Our results also provide a statistical backing for the contract decorator design pattern proposed by Liu et al, and the external or segregated storage design pattern for SCs in view of deployment costs. The external storage pattern supports the storage of SC data in a different SC (making use of CBO) to give practitioners the flexibility to switch to a different SC with newly implemented functionality while retaining storage in another deployed contract.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 53%

“…Another design pattern that utilises CBO but supports maintainability is the Satellite pattern . It solves the problem of deploying a new contract instance when there is need to update its functionality.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For example, the CBO metric is 0 for the Kleros project as only one contract is being deployed in the project as of the time of the study. The project does not make use of some of the design patterns for SCs as discussed in Wöhrer and Zdun compared with the Gnosis project that uses the Oracle (data provider) pattern and the Data Segregation pattern and as such has SCs with CBO> 0.…”

Section: Threats To Validitymentioning

confidence: 99%

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An empirical analysis of source code metrics and smart contract resource consumption

Ajienka

Vangorp

Capiluppi

2020

J Software Evolu Process

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A smart contract (SC) is a programme stored in the Ethereum blockchain by a contract-creation transaction. SC developers deploy an instance of the SC and attempt to execute it in exchange for a fee, paid in Ethereum coins (Ether). If the computation needed for their execution turns out to be larger than the effort proposed by the developer (i.e., the gasLimit), their client instantiation will not be completed successfully. In this paper, we examine SCs from 11 Ethereum blockchain-oriented software projects hosted on GitHub.com, and we evaluate the resources needed for their deployment (i.e., the gasUsed). For each of these contracts, we also extract a suite of object-oriented metrics, to evaluate their structural characteristics. Our results show a statistically significant correlation between some of the object-oriented (OO) metrics and the resources consumed on the Ethereum blockchain network when deploying SCs. This result has a direct impact on how Ethereum developers engage with a SC: evaluating its structural characteristics, they will be able to produce a better estimate of the resources needed to deploy it. Other results show specific source code metrics to be prioritised based on application domains when the projects are clustered based on common themes. KEYWORDS abstract syntax-tree (AST), blockchain-oriented software (BOS), Chidamber and Kemerer (C&K), object-oriented (OO), object-oriented programming (OOP), smart contract (SC) 1 INTRODUCTION A blockchain is a shared ledger that stores transactions in a decentralised 1 peer-to-peer network of computers also known as nodes. Blockchain transactions can be composed of contract creation transactions and contract function invoking transactions. The former deploys and records a smart contract (SC) on the blockchain, and the latter causes the execution of a contract functionality. 2,3 The third transaction type is the token or cryptocurrency transfer transaction such as Bitcoin transfers on the Bitcoin Blockchain or Ether transfers on the Ethereum Blockchain. As a whole, the blockchain technology provides a decentralised, trustless platform that combines transparency, immutability and consensus properties to enable secure, pseudo-anonymous transactions. SCs are the programmes stored in a blockchain by a contract-creation transaction. In the last few years, SCs have been used in different scenarios: in voting platforms to secure votes; to automatically process insurance claims according to agreed terms and postal companies for payments on delivery. 5 Porru et al 6 defined the term blockchain-oriented software (BOS) as a software that contributes to the realization of a blockchain project. This definition includes both blockchain platforms (or networks), such as Bitcoin and Ethereum, and general blockchain software commonly referred to as decentralised apps (DApps). 7 This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work...

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 53%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Threats To Validitymentioning

confidence: 99%

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An empirical analysis of source code metrics and smart contract resource consumption

Ajienka

Vangorp

Capiluppi

2020

J Software Evolu Process

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“…This approach results in enhanced integrity of the functions that verify the correctness of the API queries by using unique API keys and thus avoid calls from potential malicious SCs. The design of the SCs followed the oracle pattern proposed by Wöhrer et al [57] and best practices presented in the framework OpenZeppelin 8 . 3.…”

Section: Architecturementioning

confidence: 99%

“…The user who has a wallet on the blockchain ledger select a camera from a pool of trusted cameras. The Fog nodes are represented by ARNES 12 and Google Cloud Platform 13 resources. The properties of the used infrastructures representing Fog nodes are listed in Table 2.…”

Section: Qos-aware Fog Node Selection Scenariomentioning

confidence: 99%

Trust management in a blockchain based fog computing platform with trustless smart oracles

Kochovski

Gec

Stankovski

et al. 2019

Future Generation Computer Systems

150

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Trust is a crucial aspect when cyber-physical systems have to rely on resources and services under ownership of various entities, such as in the case of Edge, Fog and Cloud computing. The DECENTER's Fog Computing Platform is developed to support Big Data pipelines, which start from the Internet of Things (IoT), such as cameras that provide video-streams for subsequent analysis. It is used to implement Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms across the Edge-Fog-Cloud computing continuum which provide benefits to applications, including high Quality of Service (QoS), improved privacy and security, lower operational costs and similar. In this article, we present a trust management architecture for DECENTER that relies on the use of blockchain-based Smart Contracts (SCs) and specifically designed trustless Smart Oracles. The architecture is implemented on Ethereum ledger (testnet) and three trust management scenarios are used for illustration. The scenarios (trust management for cameras, trusted data flow and QoS based computing node selection) are used to present the benefits of establishing trust relationships among entities, services and stakeholders of the platform.

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Multi‐party smart contract for an AI services ecosystem: An application to smart construction

Gec

Kochovski

Lavbič

et al. 2022

Concurrency and Computation

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Various smart applications, such as in the domain of smart construction, require the use of artificial intelligence (AI) based services. In order to support such environments, various AI/knowledge service provider and consumer ecosystems have started to emerge.Within such ecosystems, the goals are to improve the quality, reliability, dependability in terms of governance and trust in the data which is exchanged among the various actors, which must be supported by specific business models. This work introduces a novel multi-party smart contract (SC) that is designed to address the above mentioned goals. Specific service level agreements that illustrate the interactions among the AI service providers and consumers are also presented. The developed multi-party SC supports different pricing schemes, which are analyzed in detail against the goals of the study.

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Design Patterns for Smart Contracts in the Ethereum Ecosystem

Cited by 71 publications

References 6 publications

An empirical analysis of source code metrics and smart contract resource consumption

An empirical analysis of source code metrics and smart contract resource consumption

Trust management in a blockchain based fog computing platform with trustless smart oracles

Multi‐party smart contract for an AI services ecosystem: An application to smart construction

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